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CHINESE 



LIFE AND CUSTOMS 



PAUL CARUS 



ILLUSTRATED BY CHINESE ARTISTS 




CHICAGO 
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING COMPANY 

LONDON AGENTS 
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LTD. 

I907 






LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Copies Received 

m 30 1907 

*-i_ Cooynght Entry 
CLASS A XXc, No. 
COPY 3. 



Copyright by 

The Open Court Publishing Co. 

1907. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Wen Ch'ang, the God of Literature. Frontispiece 

Entrance to a Residence (Fly-Leaf) vii 

New Year's Night : a Feast of Lanterns 2-3 

The Three Official Bodhisattvas : The Water Spirit, the Heaven Spirit and 

the Earth Spirit 4 

The Five Gods of Wealth 5 

Baptismal Fountain of the Buddha Infant 6 

Payments for Professional Services 6 

A Boat Race. 7 

The Girls' Festival: The Table with Offerings, and Threading the Needle. 8-9 

The Moon's Festival 10-1 1 

The Festival of the Tide 12-13 

The Six Gods of Thanksgiving 14 

Decorations for New Year's Eve 15 

The Paper Cow Procession of New Year's Eve 16-17 

The Breaking of the Paper Cow 18-19 

New Year Baskets 20 

Plowing the Rice Field 22 

Planting the Rice 23 

Harvesting 24 

Drying the Sheaves 25 

Husking the Rice 26 

Purification of Rice 27 

Sifting the Rice 28 

A Chinese Loom 29 

Lung : the Mythical Dragon 31 

Worshiping the Ancestor of the Family on His Memorial Day 34 

Kwan-Ti and His Attendants 36 

A Divining Outfit. . . •. 36 

A Temple of Kwan-Ti 2>7 

Temple of the Earth God 38 

The Earth Lord and the Township God 39 

Temple of the Town God 40-41 

The Town God's Festival Celebrated in the Fields 42-43 

Queen of Heaven : The Holy Mother 45 

Celebration of one of the Festivals of the Queen of Heaven 46-47 

Proclamation of the Festivals of the Queen of Heaven 48 

Taoist Priest and Priestly Crown 52 



IV CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 

PAGE 

Buddhist Monastery 54-55 

Two Tablets 56 

A Table Set for Departing Souls Prepared for the Celebration of Bud- 
dhist Masses 57 

Buddhist Mass for Vagrant Spirits 58-59 

Meditation Hall 60 

Utensils of a Buddhist Temple : a Hand Gong and a Dinner Gong in the 

Shape of Clouds 61 

Utensils of a Buddhist Temple : Fish-Shaped Gong and Censer 62 

A Chinese Residence. 65 

The Birth of the Baby 66 

Worship of the Master 68 

The Teacher Invited 69 

Four Modes of Obeisance 70-71 

A Lesson in Education Hall 72 

The Entrance Tablet of High School = 73 

The County High School 74~75 

Tablet of the West Gate 76 

Tablet of the East Gate yy 

A Lesson in Embroidery Work 78-79 

Writing a Love Letter 83 

Delivering the Trousseau 84-85 

Marriage Procession 86-87 

The Young Couple Worshiping Heaven and Earth 88-89 

Offering the Love Cup 90-91 

The Fathers of the Groom and the Bride at the Marriage Feast 92-93 

The Host Receives the Guest of Honor at the Entrance Gate 96 

The Guest of Honor at the Banquet. 97 

Cards and Other Utensils Used at Convivials 98 

Traveling in China 101 

An Inn in China 102 

A Mandarin's Rest House 103 

Lin : The Mythical Horse 104 

Visiting the Sick 106 

The Table Ready for the Wake : 107 

Funeral Procession 108- 1 1 1 

Memorial Day Celebrated at the Grave 112 

Decorative Screen 114 



FOREWORD. 



OUR intention in offering the present little book to the reading 
public is to make the Chinese characterize themselves by word 
and picture ; it is not our view of China, but a compilation of Chinese 
illustrations accompanied with as little text as will suffice to explain 
them, and even our additions are merely quotations from Chinese 
literature. 

Our frontispiece represents Wen Ch'ang, the Chinese god of 
literature, the patron of students and scholars, the promoter of learn- 
ing and of written books, religious and secular. He is pictured 
in gorgeous attire because he loves beauty, and his attendants carry 
a flower vase and an incense burner. All other illustrations are suf- 
ficiently explained in the text with the exception of the very first 
on the fly-leaf and the tailpiece at the end of the book. 

The fly-leaf is the picture of the main front entrance of a Chi- 
nese residence and is covered with benedictions according to a 
custom prevalent in Cathay. 

The horizontal inscription on the lintel reads in literal trans- 
lation, from the right to the left : 

"Blessings from heaven proceed." 

Of the four vertical lines, the two on the panels belong together 
and also the two on the door-posts, forming two distichs each of 
twice seven characters. 

The lines on the door-posts read on the right : 

"[May] the nine heavens, sun [and] moon open new fortune," 
and on the left : 

"[May for] myriads [of] miles [there be] flute playing [and] 
singing; [and a] rapture [of] grand peace." 

The "nine heavens" is a typically Chinese phrase, while the 
trinity of heaven, sun and moon stand for what Western people 
might call "Providence." 



< 



VI CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 

The words "myriad miles" simply mean "all around" or "far 
and wide." or "throughout the whole country." 

The words t'ai p'ing, i. e., "grand peace," are a typical expression 
characteristic of one of the most prominent ideals of Chinese life. 
The phrase has been adopted by the Christian rebels who gave this 
name to the dynasty which they endeavored to establish, before thev 
were suppressed with the help of General Gordon, but it must be 
understood that our present poem, as well as the term fai p'ing, is 
much older than the T'ai P'ing Rebellion. 

The two lines on the door-posts rhyme, and we may render 
them in English verse thus : 

"The heavens with sun and moon grant fortune to increase, 
With music's joyous sound enjoy a glorious peace." 

The distich on the door panels reads in a free translation i 1 

"When pleasanter, longer turn the days, 
What peace and joy they bring! 
Ice thaws, snow melts in milder breeze, 
With showers and dews of spring." 

The parallelism in the grammatical construction of these lines 
is essential in this type of Chinese poetry. 

The tail-piece on page 114 represents a screen with a landscape 
and a stanza of four lines, each of five characters, inscribed on its 
two folding wings. This poem which breathes a peculiar breadth 
of mind and sympathy with the people still unknown to us, reads 
in a metrical version thus : 2 

"The brook through quiet hamlet further hies, 
On curving path the lonely wanderer roams. 
I know not what behind the forest lies, 
How many people yonder have their homes." 

The lines here translated belong to a class of poetry that is 
typically Chinese, and may be called a genre painting (or still better 
a genre sketch) in words. The ideas presented are selected from 
daily life, and in so far as they put us in a contemplative mood they 
are comparable to what the Germans call a Stimmungsbild. The 
two Chinese characters underneath the screen read to wet (literally 
"great tail") which means "grand finale" or simply "The End." 

literally: "Relaxing, longer [are] changing days (i. e., springtime-days) : 

peaceful, joyous [in their] noontime (i. e.. life). — [There is] thawing, [there 
is] loosening [in a] humane breeze: showers [and] dews [has] spring." 

2 Literally: "Water encircling sequestered hamlet, [to] distance [goes]. — 
Over mountain passes a solitary lane curving. — Not I know dense trees be- 
hind. — Even [who is there] living in many peoples homes." 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Foreword v 

Annual Festivals I 

Chinese Industries and Foreign Relations 21 

Confucianism and Ancestor Worship 32 

Taoism and Buddhism 50 

Childhood and Education 64 

Betrothal and Marriage 81 

Social Customs and Travels. 95 

Sickness and Death 105 




z 



, j^IFE AND CUSTOMS^ , 



ilXli 



\J 




ANNUAL FESTIVALS'. 

THE more our civilization expands, and with it trade and com- 
merce, the closer will be our relations with Eastern Asia, and 
it is to our own advantage in our dealings with foreign people, to 
understand their habits and to be as familiar as possible with their 
main motives in life. Having long searched in vain for a good 
source of information concerning life in China, we have at last dis- 
covered a book, which was published in Japan by a Japanese pub- 
lisher assisted by Chinese artists, and entitled, An Exposition of 
Chinese Life and Customs under the Chin Emperors (the present 
Manchu dynasty). The book bears the title Ch'ing Hsu Chi Wen, 1 
or, as the Japanese pronounce it, Shin-zok-kih-bun, and is published 
in Tokyo. 

The book before us is fully illustrated and gives as good an 
insight into Chinese life as can be had in any special work. The 
illustrations are simply outline drawings after the fashion of Chi- 
nese art, but in this way, too, they become characteristic of the 
people whom they are intended to portray. 

The entire work consists of six fascicles, and we will select 
from it the illustrations that are of special interest. 

* * * 

The Chinese calendar is lunar, but its beginning is determined 
by the sun. New Year falls on the first new moon after the sun 
has entered Aquarius, which will never happen before Jaunary 21, 
nor after February 19. The months are strictly regulated by the 
moon. The first of every month is new moon and the fifteenth is 
full moon. 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



New Year's Day is a feast of great rejoicing. It is celebrated 
with paper lanterns and paper dragons, which are hung up in arbors 
specially erected for the purpose, and carried about in procession. 




2314 



NEW YEARS NIGHT, 



On the fifteenth of the first month, the Chinese celebrate the 
birthday of the "Spirit of Heaven." Among the gods he is the 
chief of a trinity which is greatly respected all over China, perhaps 



ANNUAL FESTIVALS. 



as much as are the three Magi among Roman Catholic Christians, 
whose festival also falls in the first month of the year. The two 
companions of the "Spirit of Heaven" are the "Spirit of Earth" 




A FEAST OF LANTERNS. 



2249 



and the "Spirit of Water." The blessings of all three are much 
needed. The Spirit of Heaven confers upon us celestial bliss ; the 
Spirit of Water quenches fire, and the Spirit of Earth procures 



4 



CHINESE LIFE AXD CUSTOMS. 



forgiveness of sin. The birthday of the Earth Spirit is the fifteenth 
of the seventh month, and the birthday of the Water Spirit is the 
tenth of the ninth month. 



t—UZ^M 







THE THREE OFFICIAL BODHISATTVAS. 
The Water Spirit, the Heaven Spirit and the Earth Spirit. 



2262 



The five gods of wealth naturally play a prominent part in the 
Chinese calendar, for every one wants to be rich and curries favor 



ANNUAL FESTIVALS. 



with them. They have a festival on the second and sixteenth days 
of every month, which is celebrated by candle and incense burning 
and by sacrifices of pigs, calves and goats. 




THE FIVE GODS OF WEALTH. 



2250 



Honorariums for services of teachers, and physicians and other 
professional men, are sent out five times in a year: in the beginning 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



of summer, in the fifth month, in the seventh month, at the begin- 
ning of winter, and on the last day of the year. The honorarium 
is wrapped in white paper and then sealed in a little envelope. 



&&4&iti 




& m 





i 





m 


/ 



BAPTISMAL FOUNTAIN OF THE BUDDHA 
INFANT. 226s 



PAYMENTS FOR PROFES- 
SIONAL SERVICES. 



Buddha's birthday is celebrated on the eighth day of the fourth 
month, and in commemoration of it Buddhists keep a canopied 



ANNUAL FESTIVALS. 



bronze statue of the Buddha child, over which eight dragons spout 
a baptism of scented water — an incident which is told in the legend- 
ary life of Buddha. 




A BOAT RACE. 



2251 



The Chinese, like Western nations, have their boat races which 
take place from the first to the sixth day of the fifth month. 



8 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



On the seventh night of the seventh month the girls have a 
festival in which they make offerings to Chih Nii, the Spinning 
Damsel, represented by that bright star,. Vega. She is the daughter 




THE TABLE WITH OFFERINGS. THE GIRLS 



of the sun-god and the patron saint of domestic women. A prettv 
legend tells of her great industry, her marriage to Keng Niu (the 



ANNUAL FESTIVALS. 



Herdsman, whose star is Aquila on the other side of the Milky 
Way), her neglect of the loom, their separation by the great silver 
stream, and their annual meeting on the seventh day of the seventh 




FESTIVAL. — THREADING THE NEEDLE. 



22"]< 



month. In the evening the girls pass a thread through the eye of 
a needle, which it is hoped will make them proficient in needlework. 



IO 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



In the eighth month the moon shines brighter than in any 
other month during the year : so the fifteenth, the night of the full 




THE MOON'S 



moon, is celebrated as the birthday of the moon. Fruit and cakes, 
all of them of a round shape, are offered on a veranda in full sight 
of the moon and then eaten in company with friends and relatives. 



ANNUAL FESTIVALS. 



II 



The moon is worshipped as a benign goddess and on her fes- 
tival people exchange congratulations and presents. 




FESTIVAL. 



2245 



It is generally regretted if the moon is beclouded in the night 
of her birthday, but the fact is not a bad omen, but is simply deemed 
an indication that the next New Year's Day will be bright. 



12 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



On the coast of South China, a special festival on the eighteenth 
day of the eighth month is officially celebrated by the governor of 
the province in honor of the tide. Offerings are made consisting of 




2310 



THE FESTIVAL 



a pig and a sheep ; however, they are not left to perish in the water, 
but after having been presented, are taken away and officially eaten 
as is customary with all offerings. 



ANNUAL FESTIVALS. 



13 



On the fifteenth of the twelfth month, the Chinese celebrate 
their Thanksgiving over which six deities preside. The names of 
four of the six gods of Thanksgiving are the same as four of the 




OF THE TIDE. 



2269 



five gods of wealth. One of the five gods of wealth, No Chin ("the 
digger of something precious") has dropped out and in his place- 
appears the god of the soil who is the local patron of the town 



14 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



ship, and Chin Lun, i. e., "the pure dragon." The meaning of this 
change has been lost, but when we consider that the wealth of a 




THE SIX GODS OF THANKSGIVING. 



2247 



primitive people consists chiefly in the produce of the field, we may 
understand that the disappearance of the digger of something pre- 
cious means the loss of the seed corn, while the new comer, Chin 



ANNUAL FESTIVALS. 



l 5 



Lun, represents the wealth of the new crop, and the local deity joins 
in the rejoicing of the harvest festival. 



4* 






DECORATIONS FOR NEW YEARNS EVE. 



2330 



On New Year's Eve, the last day of the year, cards of congratu- 
lation are hung up in conspicuous places about the house. They 
hear the inscription juh, "blessing" and picture the heavenly spirit 



i6 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



as distributing gifts or pointing to the sun in the heavens. They are 
called huan lo tsu, i. e., "cards of bliss and rejoicing." 




2316 



THE PAPER COW PROCESSION 



There is another custom of New Year's Eve which is celebrated 
all over China, and must be a very ancient tradition. On a bamboo 
frame a paper cow is built and painted in five different colors. It 



ANNUAL FESTIVALS. 



17 



contains inside a paper calf made in the same way and is led by a 
clay figure representing Tai Tsai, also called Man Shen, the deity 



ss u 





A 




OF NEW YEAR S EVE. 



2270 



presiding over the New Year's Eve festival. Tai Tsai means "the 
great year," and Man Shen, 'Vegetation god." The paper cow is 
the old year ; the calf, the new year soon to be born. 



i8 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



This group of the cow led by the god of agriculture is carried 
in festive procession, accompanied by old and young, and under the 










2268 



THE BREAKING OF 



official guidance of the mandarin into the fields, which are circum- 
ambulated to insure their fertility in the coming year. The children 
throw peas and beans at the paper cow, because they believe that 



ANNUAL FESTIVALS. 



19 



whoever hits it is sure to become immune from smallpox and other 



contageous diseases. 




THE PAPER COW. 



2255 



On the return to the village the paper cow is carried to the 
temple of Tai Tsai where this symbol of the old year is torn to pieces 
and the new year in the shape of the young calf brought to light. 



20 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



The day ends with an invocation for a rich harvest in the com 
ing year. 



HI %* 



MbM 





NEW YEAR BASKETS. 



233' 



On the same day, baskets are put up filled with rice, nuts, and 
fruit, in which branches of pine tree and arbor vita are inserted. 
They are called wan zuen Hang, or "ten thousand years' provisions." 



CHINESE INDUSTRIES AND FOREIGN RELA- 
TIONS. 



CHINA'S superiority over all her neighbors is due to the in- 
dustry of her people, and of all the several branches of labor 
agriculture holds the first place. 

Agriculture is honored by an annual plowing ceremony, which 
is of ancient origin, and is performed every April all over China 
with great pomp by the highest state authorities. At Pekin, the 
emperor betakes himself in grand procession to the sacred field, 
and lays royal hand to the plow which, for this especial purpose, 
is kept in the Temple of Agriculture. He turns over three furrows, 
the princes five, and the ministers nine. The crop of the field is 
used as show-bread in the temple service. 

The Chinese raise wheat, barley, oats, millet, maize, sesame, 
peas, beans, lentils, etc. and, in the south, rice. In addition they 
cultivate hemp and sugar cane. Some peculiarly Chinese plants 
are cultivated for their oil and used for cookery. In addition 
there is much vegetable gardening, and large tracts are covered 
with tea plantations, which constitute a very considerable portion 
of the wealth of the country. 

The character mi, 1 "rice," is one of the radicals in Chinese 
writing, bearing the number 119. Its original form is that of a 
cross (like the Chinese character io 2 ) having in each corner a dot. 
The four dots mean grains of rice, and the cross is simply intended 
as a division line between them. Originally the character mi re- 
ferred to grain of all kinds, but now unless otherwise specified 
always denotes grains of rice, just as in continental Europe "corn" 
means first of all wheat, while in the United States it means "maize." 

The rice plant called tao, 3 consists of the radical "plant" and 

*# 2 t 3 m 



22 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



two other symbols denoting "mortar" and "hand." It means in 
this position a plant that is intended to be husked in a mortar. 

Tea and rice are the most indispensable things in China to 







PLOWING THE RICE FIELD. 



2326 



both the rich and the poor, the literati and the common people, 
the emperor and the peasant. It is characteristic of the Chinese 



CHINESE INDUSTRIES AND FOREIGN RELATIONS. 



23 



that both the chief drink and the chief food of China have peculiar 
names to be used ordinarily in life and also in poetry. Rice is 
called "white food" and tea "the servant of cream." The literary 







. # 



$. — iJiliL^Jii/i 4j 



ftf — «r if 



-i-L-sJIa 



t — ^k^jtk 






PLANTING THE RICE. 



2267 



or poetic name (wen ming) of the former is "auspicious herb," 
and of the latter "long waist," an epithet which might be more 



24 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



freely translated as "tall beauty" and refers presumably to the 
elongated shape of a grain of rice. 

The cultivation of the rice plant and the various operations 




HARVESTING. 



2321 



necessary to prepare the grain for use are well illustrated in our 
pictures. Rice culture is described by Mr. S. Wells Williams as 
follows : 



CHINESE INDUSTRIES AND FOREIGN RELATIONS. 



25 



"An early rain is necessary to the preparation of the rice-fields, 
except where water can be turned upon them. The grain is first 
soaked, and when it begins to swell is sown very thickly in a small 




DRYING THE SHEAVES. 



2258 



plat containing liquid manure. When about six inches high the 
shoots are planted into the fields, which, from being an unsightly 
marsh, are in a few days transformed to fields clothed with living 



26 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



green. Holding the seedlings in one hand, the laborer wades 
through the mud, at every step sticking into it five or six sprouts, 
which take root without further care; six men can transplant two 




HUSKING THE RICE. 



2322 



acres a day, one or two of whom are engaged in supplying the others 
with shoots. The produce is on an average tenfold. Rent of land 
is usually paid according to the amount of the crop, the landlord 



CHTNESE INDUSTRIES AND FOREIGN RELATIONS. 



27 



paying the taxes and the tenant stocking the farm; leases are for 
three, four, or seven years; the terms vary according to the posi- 
tion and goodness of the soil." 




PURIFICATION OF RICE 



2253 



After the rice harvest the sheaves are dried and the rice is 
passed through a husking drum whose machinery is turned by a 
large crank worked by hand. To purify it the rice is then pounded 



28 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



in mortars by hammers which are turned by a water wheel, after 
which it is finally sifted. 

While the general welfare of China depends on good crops, 




SIFTING THE RICE. 



2266 



as in most countries, other industries are not neglected. In fact, 
they are highly developed, and had reached a state of perfection 
when Europe was still in a semi-barbarous condition. Silk, lacquer, 



CHINESE INDUSTRIES AND FOREIGN RELATIONS. 



2 9 



porcelain 4 , glass, ivory carving, and textiles are mentioned among 
the earliest exports of China and form even to-day the staple 
products of the country. Weaving is still done by hand on old- 




A CHINESE LOOM. 



2256 



* The word "porcelain" is a Portuguese name which was given to Chinese 
crockery by the Portuguese, because they were under the impression that it 
was made of a mixture of egg shells, fish glue, and scales. 



30 CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 

fashioned looms, but Chinese fabrics are famous for their fineness 
and elegance, and compete successfully with the best European 
products. In addition, China exports bronzes, furs, grass cloth, 
salt, and gems of all kinds. 

The Chinese are good workers in metals and have been pro- 
ficient in casting large bronze statues and bells for many centuries. 
They manufactured paper and printed books hundreds of years be- 
fore the paper industry and the art of printing were thought of 
in Europe. They knew the mariner's compass and the use of gun 
powder. In fact these inventions were made in Europe after the 
report of them had been spread by travelers who had visited Cathay 
and startled the world with their tales of the flourishing state of 
China's civilization. 

Ancient China had an extended trade with all the world. It 
is noteworthy that Chinese bottles with classical Chinese quotations 
have been discovered in ancient tombs of Egypt and Asia Minor. 
Professor Hirth has traced the intercourse of China with the Roman 
empire, and considers it to have been more important than is gen- 
erally believed. The Mohammedans of Western Asia continued 
to trade with China and left, as an incidental result, many millions 
of adherents of the Prophet, whose religion in the Celestial Empire 
is called hwui-hwui-kiao , literally "whirl-whirl doctrine," or more 
explicitly, "the faith of the dancing dervishes." 

There are also Jews in China who, according to their own 
traditions, (which Professor Williams considers quite probable), 
came to the country under the Han dynasty (201 B. C. — 23 A. D.). 
They are called from one of their customs, tiao-kin-kiao , i. e., "the 
sect pulling out sinews," and their main seat is Kaifung, the capital 
of Honan. At present the Jews are fast disappearing through 
assimilation with the native population, but neither the Moham- 
medans nor the Jews have ever been seriously molested in their 
religious worship. 

The present inclination of the Chinese to live in seclusion and 
keep aloof from foreigners is of comparatively modern date. 

While at the beginning of the Middle Ages China was appar- 
ently more advanced in civilization than Europe, it has remained 
stagnant for more than a millennium, — a condition which is espe- 
cially noticeable in its methods of government and the jurisdiction 
of its courts. Legal procedure is very primitive and punishments 
are as severe, not to say as brutal, as they were in Europe during 
the Middle Ages. But we have no reason to look with contempt 
upon China on account of these backward conditions, for we our- 



CHINESE INDUSTRIES AND FOREIGN RELATIONS. 



31 



selves have only just emerged from the same state of savagery 
and ought to consider that in the eighteenth, and even as late as 
the beginning of the nineteenth century, criminals, especially traitors, 
still had their bones broken on the wheel, while the rack and other 
instruments of torture were considered as permissible means to 
extort confessions from suspects. 




CONFUCIANISM AND ANCESTOR WORSHIP. 

THE official religion of China is Confucianism, but Confucian- 
ism, closely considered, is not so much a religion as a system 
of ethics. Confucius was a moral teacher, and, in questions of 
religion and philosophy proper, may rightly be styled a reverent 
agnostic. He not only allows the traditional institutions of the 
worship of heaven and of ancestors, but even insists on them, leav- 
ing all details of belief to personal conviction. His system of 
ethics is based upon the idea of filial piety, called in the Chinese 
language by the one word hsiao. 1 

Confucius inculcates his ethics of hsiao by impressing his fol- 
lowers with the necessity of li, 2 propriety, that is, rules of behavior, 
and, in consequence of it, the Chinese are perhaps the most punc- 
tilious people in the world in the observance of politeness and good 
manners. Their prescriptions are very minute but would be of 
greater benefit were they not executed with such rigorous adhesion 
to the letter. 

Confucian ethics is not satisfied with goodness, nor with purity 
of heart; it demands in addition a punctilious observance of deco- 
rum, the behavior of a gentleman or a gentlewoman according to 
the established laws of propriety. This is an ancient trait of the 
Chinese ideal, and Confucius has not been its inventor, for it existed 
long before Confucius whose main merit consists in having been 
most closely in accord with the spirit of the Chinese nation. A poem 
attributed to the Duke of Wei (one of the great patterns of virtuous 
princes) has been preserved by Confucius in the Shih King. We 
are informed that he requested his statesmen to recite it to him 
daily, for he wanted to hear it in and out of season, and we extract 
from it the following stanzas: 3 

3 We follow mainly Mr. William Jennings's versification. 



CONFUCIANISM AND ANCESTOR WORSHIP. 33 

"Hold, O hold to strict decorum; 
This is virtue's vantage-coign. 

Proverb has it that e'en sages 
Now and then the fools will join. 

But the folly of the many- 
Springs from natural defect, 

While the folly of the sages 
Is the product of neglect. 

"Naught is mightier than manhood ; 

The four quarters bow to it ; 
The four quarters pay it homage, 

And do willingly submit. 
Counsels deep, commands unswerving, 

Plans far-reaching, warning due, 
Reverent care for strict decorum, — U 

Thus thou art a pattern true. 

"Let not words go from thee lightly; 

Say not ever, 'What care I ? 
There is naught my tongue to hinder.' 

— Ah, but words can never die. 
Naught is said but finds its echo, 

Naught well done but finds reward ; 
Treat thy subjects as thy children, 

Be with friends in full accord; 
So thine issue shall continue, 

And all subjects own thee lord. 

"Prince, be thine the ways of virtue; 

Practise what is right and good; 
Hold unblemished thy behavior, 
Failing not in rectitude. 



"As the wood that bends yet breaks not 
With the silken string is bound, 
So the kindly and the courteous 
Furnish Virtue's building-ground. 
"Ah, my son ! I put before thee 
Wisdom taught by men of yore ; 
Hear my counsels, and obey them ; 
Naught there will be to deplore ! 

"Think of history's great lessons, 

And of Heaven's unerring hand ! _ - __^__ , 
Sorely shalt thou vex thy people 
Virtue if thou so withstand." 

The virtue of filial piety is based upon the experience that 
everywhere in the world we have the relation of superior to subject, 
which ought to be paternal in character, as exemplified in the rela- 



34 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



tion nearest to man, that of father and child. The character hsiao 
shows the symbol "child" supporting an "old man," and it means 
originally the child's love for his father, but embraces also the 




22C 5 

WORSHIPING THE ANCESTOR OF THE FAMILY ON HIS MEMORIAL DAY. 



responsibility of the father towards his children, and appears in 
five different relations which are as follows : the relation of sover- 



CONFUCIANISM AND ANCESTOR WORSHIP. 35 

eign to subject, of father to son, of husband to wife, of elder brother 
to younger brother, of friend to friend. In explanation of the 
fourth relation, we would say that according to the views of feudal 
paternalism, when the father dies, the oldest son takes his place and 
is forthwith regarded as the head of the family. In the fifth rela- 
tion, that of friendship among equals, the rule obtains in China that 
juniors should always respect their seniors and show them reverence, 
as to elder brothers. 

Filial piety is not limited to the living, to father and grand- 
father, but extends to the dead and finds expression in rituals 
which are commonly called ancestor worship. Ancestor worship 
is practised throughout China with great fidelity, for every house 
has its altar erected to the founder of the family, and the days of 
the death of father and mother and grandparents are kept as 
sacred memorial festivals. 

The relation of heaven to earth is represented under the simile 
of sovereign to subject, and in this respect heaven is called Shang 
Ti,* i. e., "the Lord on High," or "the High Emperor," a con- 
ception which finds its exact parallel in the Western God idea. 

When we come to religion proper, we find China in a state 
that reminds us greatly of the phase of Christianity, which still 
obtains in Greek and Roman Catholic countries. In spite of the . 

fact that Shang Ti, the Lord on High, is recognized as the God ^Vy 
of Gods, the supreme divine being, omnipresent and omnipotent, 
the Chinese are commonly believed to be polytheistic. And so they 
are, if we retain the translation "gods" for all their minor deities ; 
but in justice to them, we should compare their minor gods to the 
saints and archangels of Greek and Roman Catholicism. The word 
shen 5 does not mean "god" in our sense, but any spiritual being, 
and it is our own misconception if we forget that the Chinese 
believe in one God only, Shang Ti, the Lord on High, who is 
supreme ruler over the host of all divinities and spirits. 

There are as many Chinese divinities as there are Christian 
saints, but certain gods are favorites and their temples will be 
found in every village. There is, for instance, the god Kwan Ti, 6 
the lord of war. He is a national hero of China who lived in the 
second century of the Christian era and died 219 A. D. His name 
was Kwan Yii or Kwan Yun Chang, and he was a native of Kiai 
Chow in Shan-Si. In his early years he was a seller of bean curds ; 
later on he applied himself to study until during the war of the 



36 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



Three Kingdoms he took up arms in defence of the Imperial house 
of Han against the rebels of the yellow turban. He contributed 




KWAN-TI AND HIS ATTENDANTS 



Underneath are pictured the divining board, the divining box, and 
one of the divining sticks. 

not a little to the victory of the loyalist party and was not only a 
brave general but also a protector of the honor of women. 



CONFUCIANISM AND ANCESTOR WORSHIP. 



37 



An incident of his life made him the pattern of chivalrous be- 
havior. Ts'ao Ts'ao, an ambitious general of the imbecile em- 
peror Hien-Ti, wished to usurp the imperial power and deprive the 




A TEMPLE OF KWAN-TI. 



2274 



rightful heir Liu Pei of the throne. When he recognized the 
sterling qualities of Kwan Ti, he tried to sow enmity between him 



38 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



and Liu Pei, and with this end in view imprisoned the latter's two 
wives, the ladies Kan and Mei, and caused Kwan Ti to be shut 
up with them at night in the same apartment. But the faithful 




TEMPLE OF THE EARTH GOD. 



warrior preserved his honor and the reputation of the ladies, by 
keeping guard in an antechamber the livelong night with a lighted 



CONFUCIANISM AND ANCESTOR WORSHIP. 



39 



lantern ; and in allusion to the untarnished name of the hero, the 
Chinese say to this day "Kwan Yiin's lighted candle lasts until 




THE EARTH LORD AND THE TOWNSHIP GOD. 



2292 



morning." As soon as Ts'ao Ts'ao believed himself strong enough, 
he rebelled openly against the emperor. He took Kwan Yii pris- 



40 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



oner and had him beheaded. Liu Pei mourned for his faithful 
supporter, and when he ascended the throne had him deified under 
the title "Emperor Kwan," i. e., Kwan Ti. 




2280 



TEMPLE OF 



A temple of Kwan Ti exists in every village, and people con- 
sult it in many affairs of their lives. We find in Kwan Ti temples 
a method of divination which is highly esteemed by the illiterate 



CONFUCIANISM AND ANCESTOR WORSHIP. 



41 



classes. A great number of oracles are written on wooden slips 
which are attached to the divining board and marked with a special 
symbol for each. The same symbols are written on sticks and locked 




THE TOWN GOD. 



2305 



up in a box with a hole in one corner. The box is shaken until one 
stick comes out, and the oracle thus determined by the symbol of 
the stick is read off from the divining board. Underneath the pic- 



42 



CHINESE LIFE AXD CUSTOMS. 



ture of Kwan Ti and his attendants we have a representation of the 
divination board containing sticks of wood upon which oracles are 
written. To the right of it is the divination box and one of the 



"***= 




m ft I 



It iiPirti 



^_J^ 



THE TOWN GOD S FESTIVAL 



divining sticks. The hole in the box indicated by a darker spot 

on the left upper side is scarcely visible. (See picture on page 36.) 

Other divinities that are met with in every village of China 



CONFUCIANISM AND ANCESTOR WORSHIP. 



43 



are the local patrons of the place, the Earth Lord and the Township 
God. Our illustration represents the former in the shape of a Taoist 
wearing- the priestly cap and gown, the latter as a mandarin with a 




CELEBRATED IN THE FIELDS. 



helmet and dressed like a magistrate. Both hold in their hands the 
ju-i or magic wand, the possession of which ensures one to obtain 
his desires. 



44 CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 

The temples are surrounded by two walls, and the worshiper 
passes two gates before he approaches the shrine. In the court 
of the temple of the Earth God we see an artificial pond which is 
spanned by an arched bridge. The same custom prevails in other 
temples, and both the pond and the bridge must possess an ancient 
meaning, but our sources do not give any indication of its symbol- 
ism. It is possible that the bridge possesses the same significance 
as the drum bridge in the Shinto temples of Japan, which, as Mr. 
Aston suggests, represents the rainbow, which is called "the float- 
ing bridge" over which Izanagi and Izanami passed at the time of 
creation. Or can the pond be a reminiscence of a more primitive 
age when the deep, or the waters of the ocean, called by the Baby- 
lonians "Tiamat," were figuratively represented in the temples, 
which is related not only of Babylonian temples but also of the 
temple of Solomon at Jerusalem? 

The shrines of both the Earth Lord and the Township God 
are usually supported at public expense, and their festivals are offi- 
cially celebrated with parades and joyous processions around the 
fields. 

One of the most interesting divinities of China is a goddess 
whose worship closely resembles the worship of the Virgin Mary 
among the Greek and Roman Catholics, and also the Buddhist 
Kwan Yin. Her official name is "Heaven's Queen and Holy 
Mother," and in our picture she is represented as accompanied by 
female attendants while two warriors serve as guardians. 

The original title of this popular goddess was "Holy Mother," 
but Emperor K'ang-Hi bestowed upon her the high dignity of 
T'ien Hou, i. e., Heaven's Ruler," translated either "Heavenly 
Queen" or "Empress." 

As is customary in the mythology of China, the Queen of 
Heaven also took up her abode upon earth for a time, and during 
the period of her incarnation she was Miss Ling, the daughter of 
a respectable man and sister of four brothers. While her brothers 
were at sea, she fell into a deep trance from which her parents 
who thought her dead awakened her with shouts of lamentation 
and cries of grief. Soon afterwards her youngest brother returned 
and told how in a terrible storm he had been saved by the appari- 
tion of his sister, but the three other brothers were drowned be- 
cause she had been called back too soon from the scene of the dis- 
aster when her parents awakened her from her trance. Thus her 
power to help travelers was practically proved through this tale 
which is firmly believed by her devotees. 



CONFUCIANISM AND ANCESTOR WORSHIP. 



45 



Miss Ling's father was afterwards drowned in the sea, and 
she in her filial devotion was so much grieved that she threw herself 
into the ocean and followed him in death. She has remained, how- 




QUEEN OF HEAVEN, THE HOLY MOTHER. 



2Z77 



ever, the guardian of seafaring people in distress, and many stories 
are told of how she appears to the shipwrecked and guides them to 
places of safety. 



46 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



Two festivals, one in the spring and one in the autumn, are 
celebrated with great rejoicing as official holidays in honor of the 
''Queen of Heaven." They are announced by large placards bear- 




2271 



CELEBRATION OF ONE OF THE 



ing official proclamation such as those in our illustration, with the 
inscription "Heavenly Queen and Holy Mother" on the right, and 
on the left in small characters on top, "By order" and in large 



CONFUCIANISM AND ANCESTOR WORSHIP. 



47 



characters, "Spring and Autumn Festivals." The sacrificial ani- 
mals for this occasion are as usual three in number, the pig, the ox, 
and the sheep. 




FESTIVALS OF THE QUEEN OF HEAVEN. 



2278 



It is perhaps redundant to state that the Queen of Heaven 
as a deity has no connection with the religious conception t'ien, 
"heaven," which plays so prominent a part in the religious and 



48 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



philosophical life of China in exactly the same sense as that in 
which the word "Heaven''' is used among- Western people where it 
serves as a synonym for God or divine providence. The Chinese 



■Ass. _rffe> 






PROCLAMATION OF THE FESTIVALS OF THE QUEEN OF HEAVEN. 2300 

possess a number of proverbs on heaven which show a remarkable 
analogy between Western and Eastern thought. Here are some 
instances after Paul Perny's Proverbes Chinois: 



CONFUCIANISM AND ANCESTOR WORSHIP. 49 

"Plans are made by man but their accomplishment rests with 
Heaven/' 

This Chinese saying corresponds exactly to our proverb, "Man 
proposes ; God disposes," or in French, "L'homme propose, le Ciel 
dispose." 

"If man does not see you, Heaven does." 

"Man's most secret words resound to Heaven as loudly as 
thunder, and his most secret actions are seen as plain as lightning." 

"Heaven's eyes are very bright. Heaven recompenses every 
one according to his deserts." 

"Calamities come from Heaven, but we should probe our hearts 
lest we be blameworthy." 

"In doing good we honor God, in doing evil we provoke the 
punishment of Heaven." 

"Man depends on Heaven, the ship on the pilot." 

"We may cure a disease, but we can not change the decrees 
of Heaven." 

"Life and death are our fate, but nobility and wealth are gifts 
of Heaven." 

"Man sees only the present; but Heaven beholds the distant 
future." 

"The evils prepared by man are not dangerous ; but the evils 
sent by Heaven are such." 

"This life is full of doubt and misery ; Heaven alone is pure and 
true." 

"Man has good intentions, but they are inspired by Heaven." 

"A bad man may hurt his neighbor but not Heaven ; a good 
man may be misjudged by his neighbor, but not by Heaven." 

"We lean on Heaven when eating our rice." 



TAOISM AXD BUDDHISM. 



TAOISM is a religion which professedly recognizes the author- 
ity of Lao Tze and preaches the noble doctrines of lovingkind- 
ness and general good-will to all beings. Lao Tze's Tao-Teh King, 
though regarded as authoritative, is little studied by Taoist priests. 
The books best known are those containing the moral doctrines of 
Taoism, especially the Kan-Ying P'ien, ''The Treatise on Response 
and Retribution,'" 1 and the Yin-Chih Wen, 'The Tract of the Quiet 
Way.'" 2 These are supposed to contain all that is essential in the 
Taoist faith; the former book is highly esteemed above all, and its 
distribution is considered a religious duty. In the English-speaking 
world Bibles have been published in countless numbers, and some 
think that Shakespeare's works have appeared in even more editions 
than the scriptures, but scholars familiar with Chinese literature 
claim, not without plausibility, that the editions of Kan-Ying P'ien 
are even more numerous than those of the Bible or Shakespeare. 
Edition after edition is constantly appearing from local presses at 
the expense of Chinese philanthropists, who by this means hope 
to gain merit and the assurance of the prosperity of their family. 

A few quotations from the Kan-Ying P'ien will show the nobil- 
ity and high character of its ethics. It begins with the following 
sentence : 

'The Exalted One says that curses and blessings do not come 
through gates, but man himself invites their arrival. The reward 
of good and evil is like the shadow accompanying a body." 

From the moral maxims we quote the following sayings: 

"The right way leads forward ; the wrong one backward." 

1 T'ai-Shang Kan-Ying P'ien, Treatise of the Exalted One on Response 
and Retribution. Translated from the Chinese by Teitaro Suzuki and Dr. 
Paul Carus. Chicago, The Open Court Pub. Co., 1906. 

2 Yin-Chih Wen, The Tract of the Quiet Way. Translated from the Chi- 
nese by Teitaro Suzuki and Dr. Paul Carus. Chicago, The Open Court Pub. 
Co., 1906. 



TAOISM AND BUDDHISM. 5 1 

"Do not proceed on an evil path." 

"With a compassionate heart turn toward all creatures." 

"Be faithful, filial, friendly, and brotherly." 

"First rectify thyself and then convert others." 

"Be grieved at the misfortune of others and rejoice at their 
good luck." 

"Assist those in need, and rescue those in danger." 

"Regard your neighbor's gain as your own gain, and regard 
your neighbor's loss as your own loss." 

"Do not call attention to the faults of others, nor boast of your 
own excellence." 

"Extend your help without seeking reward." 

"Give to others and do not regret or begrudge your liberality." 

While there is much good in Taoism, we must not forget that 
the general ignorance which prevails in the middle and lower classes 
of China, and also among the Taoist priests, favors the development 
of superstition, and the practice of Taoism is not as pure as one 
ought to expect from so profound a leader as Lao Tze and such 
noble principles as are contained in their sacred books. The Taoist 
priesthood forms a powerful hierarchy under the guidance of a 
Taoist pope, whose rights are respected by the imperial govern- 
ment. The Taoist papacy is hereditary in the family of Chang 
Tao Ling, "the Heavenly Teacher," who is venerated as the vice- 
gerent of God, the Pearly Emperor in Heaven. 

An essay on Taoism which came from China was read at the 
Religious Parliament at Chicago and is published in the official re- 
port of Dr. Barrows, from which we quote the following passages : 3 

"If Taoists seek Taoism's deep meaning in earnest,, and put 
unworthy desires aside, they are not far from its original goal. But 
in after generations the marvelous overcrowded this ; Taoists left 
the right way and boasted wonders of their own. Legends of gods / 

and genii became incorporated with Taoism. In the Han dynasty 
Taoism had thirty-seven books and the genii religion ten. These 
were different at first. But from the time Taoism ceased to think 
purity and peaceableness sufficient to satisfy men, it became the 
genii religion (magic and spiritualism), though still called Taoism." 

"Taoism and the genii religion have deteriorated. Taoists only 
practise charms, read prayers, play on stringed or reed instruments, 
and select famous mountains to rest in. They rejoice in calling 
themselves Taoists, but few carry out the true learning of the 
worthies and the holy sages of the past. If we ask a Taoist what 

8 The World's Parliament of Religions, Vol. II, pages 1355 ff. 



52 



CHINESE LIFE AXD CUSTOMS. 



is taught in the Yin Tu King, he does not know. If you kneel for 
explanation of the Tao Teh King, he cannot answer. 

"Oh! that one would rise to restore our religion, save it from 




TAOIST PRIEST AND PRIESTLY CROWN. 



2302 



errors, help its weakness, expose untruth with truth, explain the 
mysteries, understand it profoundly and set it forth clearly, as Ro- 



TAOISM AND BUDDHISM. 53 

man Catholics and Protestants assemble the masses to hear, and to 
explain the doctrines that their followers may know the ends for 
which their churches were established! If the coarse influences 
with which custom has obscured them were removed, the doctrines 
of Lao-tsze, Chang-tsze, Yin Hi, and Lie-tsze might shine forth 
brightly. Would not this be fortunate for otir religion?" 

Buddhism, as is well known, has been a no less potent factor 
in the religious development of China than Christianity in Europe. 
Buddhist monasteries and Buddhist pagodas are seen everywhere, 
and, strange to say, its institutions remind one very much of mediae- 
val Christianity. The history of Buddhism in its several phases 
is a most striking evidence of the truth that the same law of devel- 
opment sways the fate of mankind in all countries. 

The Buddhist form of worship is not carried on in the simple 
spirit of its founder; it is modified not only through priestly inter- 
ests but also by popular superstitions, and it has incorporated the 
legends and mythology of pre-Buddhistic times. 

Under these conditions it is but natural that the resemblance 
of Buddhist institutions to Roman Catholicism has been noticed 
both by Roman Catholic and Protestant missionaries. It is too 
remarkable not to be apparent at first sight. Monks live under an 
abbot in monasteries according to the same or very similar rules 
that we find in mediaeval monasteries. 

The Buddhist monasteries in China are private institutions 
and receive no support from the government. They are endowed 
with some land and with the buildings on it which may be a dona- 
tion or bequest of some pious man. Whatever needs they may 
have for the support of their institution must be collected by beg- 
ging or contributions of devotees. The lower class of the monks 
have as a rule to work hard to keep the monastery in order, or 
to cultivate the garden or fields that may be connected with the 
institution. 

After entering within the walls of the monastery pictured here, 
we would see on the right a small pagoda with five roofs, cor- 
responding to the five elements. We enter through the gate and 
before us stands the main building which is used for ceremonies 
of any kind or religious services. Behind the main building we 
see the temple which is the sanctuary proper. At the farther end 
of the court stands the abbot's residence, and to the left of it is 
the kitchen. The house to the right of the abbot's residence is 
called the "guests' house" and the wing that extends from it toward 
the front is the building of officials. We see two bell towers, one 



54 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



on either side of the inner court. The little huts at the extreme 
right are bath houses, and the buildings on the left hand are suc- 







— 7r TZJ25CJ "V 



227s 



BUDDHIST 



cessively a shrine sacred to the founder of the sect, the meditation 
hall, and the dining hall of the monks. 

Of the two tablets here represented, the one to the left is found 



TAOISM AND BUDDHISM. 



55 



outside of the temple walls and it reads in the order of the Chinese 
words: "It is not permitted odorous things and liquors to enter 




MONASTERY. 



2301 



into the mountain gate." 4 The tablet to the right is a prayer for 
the Emperor of China which is found in every Buddhist temple. 

* "Mountain gate" is the usual expression for temple gate. 



56 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



It reads, preserving again the consecutive order of words : "To the 
august | Emperor, | myriad | ages | and myriads | of myriads | of 
ages," which in brief means, "Long live the Emperor." 



j~ 
K 







M 
^ 




TWO TABLETS. 



2290 



Masses are read for the dead and for other purposes. Our 
picture represents a Buddhist mass for vagrant spirits. To the 



TAOISM AND BUDDHISM. 



57 



right we see a table with seven chairs. On the table stands a 
statue of Buddha and before every chair is placed a book of the 
Sutras. The presiding priest sits in the center, and all of them 




A TABLE SET FOR DEPARTING SOULS, PREPARED FOR THE CELEBRATION 

OF BUDDHIST MASSES. 2294 



read the Sutras in unison. The arrangement on the left side is a 
representation of the world and contains invitations for all beings 



5» 



CHINESE LIEE AND CUSTOMS. 



and spirits to be present. The upper inscriptions in the center of 
the altar call on all the Buddhas, "Shakya Muni, Amitabha, Kwan 
Yin, etc." The tablets underneath bear the names of the temple 




BUDDHIST MASS FOR 



guardians, "the Dragon King, the Heavenly Master, the Earth God 
etc." On the right wing of the altar are recorded "the human 



TAOISM AND BUDDHISM. 



59 



world, the heavenly world and the world of fighting demons" ; 
on the left wing is the "domain of animals, of the denizens of 
hell and of hungry ghosts." The four turret-like buildings with 




VAGRANT SPIRITS. 



flags represent the four mountains of the world, called, beginning 
from below, "the cloth mount, the silver mount, the gold mount, 



6o 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



and the money mount." The four square tables at the four corners 
mark the four quarters of the world, ''south and east" being below ; 




MEDITATION HALL 



2279 



and "west and north" on the upper part of the picture. On the 
table in front of this arrangement are placed two cups, one con- 



taining rice and the other water. 



TAOISM AND BUDDHISM. 



61 



Much time is given by the monks to meditation. fThey sit 
down in silence in Meditation Hall and ponder over the problems 




UTENSILS OF A BUDDHIST TEMPLE, A HAND GONG AND A DINNER GONG 

IN THE SHAPE OF CLOUDS. 2291 



of life, or try to discover the meaning of difficult passages. Their 
exercises are guided by their superior, the abbot of the monastery, 



62 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



or an older member of the brotherhood and when they think thev 
have solved the problem they discuss it again with their father con- 
fessor. While the monks of the Hinavana or southern school devote 








<*=!> 



it ? 
Hi 

iv 




a 



FISH-SHAPED GONG AND CENSER. 



saN 



themselves chiefly to meditation on the vanity and transiency of 
life, the northern Buddhists of China and Japan prefer the subtle 



TAOISM AND BUDDHISM. 63 

problems of philosophical speculation, on the origin and nature of 
the universe, the purpose of life, the relation of the Tathagata to 
the world, the cessation of being, the foundation of morality, and 
kindred subjects. 

The tendency of asceticism prevails and pagodas and monas- 
teries are richly endowed while Buddhist priests perform upon the 
whole the same functions as the Catholic clergy. 

Further, it is strange that in its higher evolution Buddhism 
also enters into a phase which offers an exact parallel to the de- 
velopment of dissenting churches in Christendom. The reforma- 
tion started in China with the Pure Land Sect, which set all their 
hope of salvation in faith alone in the Buddha Amitabha. In 
China, upon the whole, the Roman Catholic form of Buddhism 
prevails, while Japan, with regard to its Buddhist institutions, may 
be characterized as a Protestant Buddhist country. The main repre- 
sentative of Protestant Buddhism is the Shin Shu sect, an offshoot 
of the Pure Land sect, in which the priests marry and are allowed 
to eat fish and flesh. Like Luther, they insist that man is justified 
by faith alone, not by his deeds, but that good deeds will follow 
the right faith as a matter of course. 

There are as many different kinds of Buddhist monks with 
different regulations as there are orders and congregations in the 
Roman Catholic Church, and Buddhist Lord Abbots have played 
a part in the history of both China and Japan proportionate to that 
of the abbots and bishops in Christian countries during the Middle 
Ages. 



CHILDHOOD AXD EDUCATION. 



FAMILY life in China as much as in all other countries is cen- 
tered in the nursery, and if there is a difference we may say 
that the interest in education is even higher than in the West. When 
a child is born it is tended with as much love as in Europe and 
America, though scientific insight into medical affairs may fre- 
quently be lacking. 

How similar the affection of the parents of Cathay is to our 
own appears from their nursery rhymes, the spirit of which may be 
seen in the following lines which we quote in Isaac Taylor Head- 
land's translation : 

"Heh, my baby ! Ho, my baby ! 
See the wild ripe plum, 
And if you'd like to eat a few, 
I'll buy my baby some." 

Another jingle which reminds one of our own children's verse 
on the lady-bug, runs thus : 

"Fire-fly, fire-fly. 
Come from the hill, 
Your father and mother 
Are waiting here still. 
They've bought you some sugar, 
Some candy and meat, 
Come quick or I'll give it 
To baby to eat." 

What the Saxon says of his home is literally true in China. 
The typical Chinese residence is a little castle and all its arrange- 
ments show that it has been built for family life. It consists of 
several one-story structures that are shut off from the outside world 
bv a wall. Having entered through the gate, we find three build- 
ings one after another separated by court yards. First, we reach 



CHILDHOOD AND EDUCATION. 



65 



the reception room; having crossed a second court yard, we come 
to the main dwelling house ; and behind that we will find the apart- 
ments for women and children. 






WMMMMM MM, 




A CHINESE RESIDENCE. 



2312 



When children grow up, the boys are sent to schools, while the 
girls receive the most of their education at home. 

The sexes are separated at the early age of seven, and while 



66 



CHINESE LIFE AXD CUSTOMS. 



the boys are trained to behave and speak in a straightforward way 
the girls are taught to be first of all demure. The Chinese language 
has even a different form of affirmation for them: while the bovs 




THE BIRTH OF THE BABY. 



2261 



say weij the girls should answer 0, when they intend to say "yes." 
The former is an unequivocal and definite declaration that it is so, 



CHILDHOOD AND EDUCATION. 6? 

while the latter is a submissive assent. Lao Tze who condemns the 
ceremonialism of China so vigorously insisted upon by the Confucian 
school, denounces the difference made between wei and o 1 and calls 
this zealous clinging to tradition "the mere flower of reason." 2 

From earliest childhood much time is spent on the formation of 
character, and attention is paid not only to moral conduct, filial 
piety, patience, obedience, diligence, thrift, frugality, kindness toward 
all beings, but also to minute rules of good breeding, relating to 
behavior toward themselves, as to dress, personal appearance, etc., 
and toward others, their parents, guests, persons of respect, their 
elders, their equals, etc. ; for a breach of etiquette is deemed more 
unpardonable in China than in the most punctilious circles else- 
where. 

We quote a few passages from the Hsiao Hsio, "The Juvenile 
Instructor," which is the standard book on education. There we 
read: 

"Let children always be taught to speak the truth, to stand 
erect and in their proper places and listen with respectful attention. 

"The way to become a student is, with gentleness and self- 
abasement, to receive implicitly every word the master utters. The 
pupil, when he sees virtuous people, must follow them; when he 
hears good maxims, conform to them. He must cherish no wicked 
designs, but always act uprightly ; whether at home or abroad, he 
must have a fixed residence, and associate with the benevolent, 
carefully regulating his personal deportment, and controlling the 
feelings of the heart. He must keep his clothes in order. Every 
morning he must learn something new, and rehearse the same 
every evening." 

When a boy is entrusted to a teacher, he is impressed with the 
significance of the new period of life, upon which he is about to 
enter by receiving a literary appellation called shu ming or book 
name, by which he will be called for the rest of his life. 

The great authority in school affairs is Confucius. His picture 
is set up in a conspicuous place over an altar, and when the father 
entrusts his boy to the care of a teacher, the child's first act is to 
show reverence for the great master of Chinese morality by kneeling 
before his effigy. 

Though the figure of Confucius has not been deified as other 
religious leaders have been under similar circumstances, he may be 

1 Tao-Teh-King, Chapter 20. See the author's translation, p. 106. 

2 Ibid., Chapter 38. See the author's translation, p. 116. 



68 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



regarded as a kind of Christ to the Chinese people, and he is looked 
up to as the ideal of proper behavior. 

Confucius was not an originator but a preserver. He estab- 
lished the Chinese canon by collecting those writings which he 




WORSHIP OF THE MASTER. 



2317 



deemed authoritative, and he characterizes his own development in 
the Analects (II. iv) as follows: "At fifteen. I had mv mind bent 



CHILDHOOD AND EDUCATION. 



69 



on learning. At thirty, I stood firm. At forty, I had no doubts. At 
fifty, I knew the decrees of Heaven. At sixty, my ear was an obe- 
dient organ for the reception of truth. At seventy, I could follow 
what my heart desired, without transgressing what was right." 




THE TEACHER INVITED. 



2323 



His moral maxims are tersely characterized in one of his say- 
ings which is preserved in the same place and reads as follows (loc. 



7o 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



cit. I, vi) : "A youth, when at home, should be filial, and abroad 
respectful to his elders. He should be earnest and truthful. He 
should overflow in love to all, and cultivate the friendship of the 




2309 



FOUR MODES OF OBEISANCE: PROSTRATION, 



^ood. When he has time and opportunity, after the performance 
of these things, he should employ them in polite studies." 



CHILDHOOD AND EDUCATION. 



71 



Teachers are highly respected in the community and are fre- 
quently invited by the parents of their pupils. 

Instruction should not be limited to words, but must be given 




KNEELING, CLASPING HANDS, BOWING. 



2313 



mainly by example. Confucius pointed out that Heaven's teaching- 
is done in silence as we read in the Analects (XVII, 19) : 



72 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



"Once said he, 'Would that I could dispense with speech!' 
' 'Sir,' said Tsz-kung, 'if you were never to speak, what should 
your pupils have to hand down from you?' 




A LESSON IN EDUCATION HALL. 



2333 



" 'Does Heaven ever speak ?' said the Master. 'The four sea- 
sons come and go, and all creatures live and grow. Does Heaven 
indeed speak V " 



CHILDHOOD AND EDUCATION. 



73 



There are four kinds of obeisance : one is simply a bow, hsing; 3 
the next is the clasping of hands, kung shou* or i 5 ; the third one 
is kneeling, kweif and the most reverential attitude is prostration, 




THE ENTRANCE TABLET OF HIGH SCHOOL. 



pai, 1 known as "kowtowing," i. e., touching the floor with the 
forehead. 

s m *®¥ 5 *t 6 m 'ft 



74 CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 

Rich families build a special education-hall in their homes and 




THE COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL: WEST GATE. 



2334 



engage a private tutor for their children, but there are also public 
schools which might be compared to our high schools and colleges. 



CHILDHOOD AND EDUCATION. 



75 



They form a large complex of many edifices built and maintained 
by the government. 




THE COUNTY HIGH SCHOOL: EAST GATE. 



2318 



Our illustration shows a county high school such as we may 
find in many Chinese townships. We approach it on a high road, 



76 



CHINESE LIEE AND CUSTOMS. 



along which a small river runs. When we come from the west we 
see a gateway bearing a tablet, which is called the tablet of the west. 
A picture above the tablet shows a teacher with his pupil under a 



fe*&z&r£t«j&% 



^ 



C 







EF t t M. 




) 




TABLET OF THE WEST GATE. 



2324 



pine tree and the inscription reads: "The tao (i. e., the heavenly 
reason) penetrates the past and the present," which means it is 
eternal. This saying is proverbial in China and reflects the spirit 



CHILDHOOD AND EDUCATION. 



77 



of the Chinese canonical books. A few steps beyond the gate we 
see a stone tablet, standing against the wall, which warns us to 
"dismount from our horse," for it would be highly disrespectful 



#>£?#^v&? 



^ 



^1 



£L3l 



c 





.^rzb>^@§: .WW 





*, *. at*) 




") 




TABLET OF THE EAST GATE. 



2263 



to enter the premises of the school on horseback or in a carriage. 
The character which stands out by itself on the right side of the 
entrance tablet means "have respect," and then the sentence con- 



78 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



tinues in the inscription which reads from the top down : "Ordi- 
nance for every one, civil and military officers, soldiers, men of the 
people, etc., coming here : Dismount from your horse !" 




2248 



A LESSON IN 



The eastern gateway on the high road bears a similar picture 
of a teacher under a tree pointing heavenward. The inscription 
reads: "Virtue takes rank with heaven and earth." 



CHILDHOOD AND EDUCATION. 



79 



The building on the extreme east is "Literary Hall/' as we 
may translate its inscription, and is dedicated to the patron god of 
literature known as Wen Chang, which means " Scripture Glory." 




EMBROIDERY WORK. 



2336 



Other buildings serve for class rooms, and, on the extreme 
north, the largest building is called "Hall of Great Perfection," and 
is probably used for what we would call commencement exercises. 



80 CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 

The girls are educated in needlework which is considered one 
of the greatest accomplishments of their sex. Rich and poor en- 
deavor to excel in it, and Western trade knows that Chinese ladies 
can do most remarkable embroidery. 

The idea prevails generally that the education of woman is 
much neglected in China, but we find in Chinese history many 
educated ladies praised for their talents as well as for their learning. 
In fact., there are in Chinese literature not a few poems of great 
beauty recorded as the productions of princesses and noble women. 
If the poorer classes do not furnish similar instances of brilliant 
women., it is not due to a prejudice against the education of women 
but solely to lack of opportunity and inability to imitate their betters. 
It is true., however, that the emancipated woman who would have 
all considerations of a difference in sex abolished does not exist 
in China, for domestic virtues are deemed indispensable even for 
women that have become famous. 

In China all people without exception from the emperor down 
to the poorest beggar show an unbounded respect for education, 
and this spirit is well set forth in an ancient poem put into the 
mouth of King Ch'ing who ascended the throne as a child. His 
prayer reads thus : 

"Reverent, reverent I will be. 
For the will of Heaven I see. 
Oh, how great my duties are ! 
Will not say that Heaven is far. 
Since we're compassed by its light 8 
And live always in its sight. 
Fm a little child, and hence 
Still unskilled in reverence; 
But I'm daily growing fast 
And will wisdom gain at last. 
Help me bear the burden mine. 
Teach me Virtue's path divine." 

s The context of this passage suggests that it speaks of the close connec- 
tion which obtains between Heaven and us. The words however are obscure. 
A literal translation would be as follows : "Lifting up | letting down | its ! 
scholars." which, if the text is not corrupt, may mean that Heaven is in con- 
stant communication with us. it lifts up the scholars (i. e., the young king's 
counselors or teachers) and sends them down again. 



BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 

BY THE EDITOR. 

IN a girl's life the most thrilling event is her engagement and mar- 
riage. The period of courtship is filled with romance and poetry 
as much or even more than in Western countries. As evidence we 
quote a love song preserved in the Shih King 1 (I, XII, 8) : 

"How rises the moon in radiant glory! 

And thou my lady, most charming and sweetest 
Oh, listen kindly to love's story ! — 
Ah, poor my heart that vainly beatest! 

"How rises the moon in cloudless effulgence! 
And thou my lady, most winsome and purest 
Oh grant thy lover more indulgence ! — 
Ah, poor my heart what thou endurest ! 

"How rises the moon in splendor most brightly ! 
And thou my lady, loveliest, fairest 
Wilt never for my love requite me? — 
Ah, poor my heart what pain thou bearest !" 

This love ditty has been sung by lovers in Cathay for more than 
two and a half millenniums, and ever since it was incorporated in 
the Shih King by Confucius, forms part of the canonical books of 
China. But to prove that literary taste and talent have not died out 
in the middle country we will quote another poem of a more mod- 
ern date, which has been translated by Robert K. Douglas, than 
whom we can scarcely have a better interpreter of Chinese thought 
and sentiment :* 

"the love-sick maiden. 
"Within a silken curtained bed there lay 
A maiden wondrous fair but vaguely ill, 
Who cared for nothing in the outside world, 
Contented only to lie lone and still. 
1 Legge omits this song in his translation published in the Sacred Books 
of the East. We have utilized the versified versions of William Jennings 
and Victor von Strauss. 

* Chinese Stories, pp. 347-8. 



8j CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 

"While lying thus her neighbor Mrs. Wang 

Stepped lightly o'er to ask her how she fared; 
And drawing back the curtains, stood aghast 
To see how wan and pale her cheeks appeared. 

" 'Tell me what ails you. dear,' she kindly said. 
'My mind's diseased/ the maiden soft replied : 
T cannot sleep. I loathe the sight of food, 
And I'm so weary.' Then she turned and sighed. 

" 'Shall I a doctor call to see you, dear ?' 

'A doctor? Xo; I don't want any such. 
They countless questions ask to earn their fees, 
And sometimes end by finding out too much.' 

" 'Shall I call in a priest to pray with you ?' 

"A priest? Oh no, that would be worse again. 
His snuffling chants and dismal tinkling bells 
Would rather aggravate than ease my pain.' 

"'Shall I go seek a nurse to wait on you?' 
r A nurse? Oh no; the pretty maiden said; 
T could not bear to have her watching me, 
And purring like a cat about my bed.' 

""But what's the cause of this distemper, dear?' 
The maiden raised herself and blushing said . 
'Last spring young Le, who to the wars has gone, 
Was wont to saunter over hill and glade. 

" 'He loved to wander forth amongst the flowers, 
To revel in the beauties of the spring, 
To watch the blossoms opening to the sun, 
And hear the lark and tuneful throstle sing.' 

"But what has that to do with you, my child?' 
'Oh blind, oh blind, and can't you really see? 

I love him as the wakening dawn loves light; 
And let me whisper to you. he loves me.' 

" 'Then shall I call this Mr. Le to you ?' 

'What use to call, he's many leagues away. 
Oh, if I could but see him once again !' 

'You shall, my child, for he comes home to-day.' * 

A Chinese lover who woos a young lady of good family visits 
the house of her parents, where he is expected to show his accom- 
plishments, especially in penmanship. Our illustration shows a 
young man of the Chinese gentry writing to the daughter of the 
house a love letter which on the top bears the character "Beauty' 
in elegant outlines. A little paper-weight in the form of a deer 
serves to hold the long sheet of paper in place. The young man 



I 



BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 



S3 



of our illustration is apparently busy with the composition of a 
poem addressed to his "Beauty," consisting of the characters "moun- 
tain," "middle," and "high," the sense of which may be, "My beauty ! 




WRITING A LOVE LETTER. 



2260 



Among mountains, towering high," etc. A male servant of the 
house of his lady love is serving him with a cup of tea. 

/ According to old custom six rites are needed to render the mar- 



84 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



riage ceremony complete, but there is no unanimity as to which 
these six are. They consist, however, under all circumstances in 
calls of the go-betweens sent by the party of the suitor to the house 




2327 



DELIVERING 



of the intended bride, partly for exchange of presents, partly to 
inquire for names, age and circumstances, and to receive the con- 
sent of the bride's parents, and finally to fix a marriage day. 



BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 



85 



We have before us two enumerations, one considered as the 
original calls the six rites as follows : 
I. Na Ts'ai, Sending of presents. 




THE TROUSSEAU. 



2259 



2. Wen Ming, Asking of names. 

3. Na Chi, Inquiring for the auspiciousness of marriage. 
4 Na Cheng, Indication of consent by presents. 



86 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



5. Ching Chi, Naming the day. 

6. Chin Ying, Calling for the bride. 




2252 



MARRIAGE 



The other enumeration of the six rites is regarded as more 
modern, and consists of the following acts : 



BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 



87 



I. Wen Keng, Inquiring for names, which includes age and 
other conditions. 




PROCESSION. 



23 1 1 



2. Tung Keng, Answering of questions, consisting of reply of 
party of the bride. 



88 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



3. Wen Ting, Determination through divination. 

4. Tai Li, Exchange of tokens (of mutual goodwill). This 



_^pr- 







2329 



THE YOUNG COUPLE WOR- 



is made the opportunity of great display and is deemed an 
important ceremony. 
5. Sung Jih, Naming the day. 



BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 



89 



6. Chin Ying, Calling for the bride. 

These six rites are one or another strictly adhered to, but they 




SHIPING HEAVEN AND EARTH. 



2319 



are not calculated to cut off all intercourse between the lovers or 
to prevent courtship. 

When the marriage contract has been agreed upon by the 



9 o 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



parents the trousseau is carried into the future residence of the 
young couple, and on the day of marriage the groom with his 




2315 



OFFERING THE 



friends betakes himself to the bride's house, where the wedding is 
solemnized. In the evening he returns with his bride in solemn 
procession. 



BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 



91 



The Shih King, a classical collection of Chinese poetry edited 
by Confucius, which must therefore be older than 500 B. C, con- 




LOVE CUP 



2257 



tains a beautiful little "Bridal Song" which is still popular in 
China, and is frequently used on marriage festivals. We quote it 
after the versified translation of Mr. William Jennings as follows: 



9 2 



CHINESE L1EE AND CUSTOMS. 



'Ho, graceful little peach-tree, 
Brightly thy blossoms bloom ! 

The bride goes to her husband ; 
Adorns his hall, his room. 




» 4 6 



THE FATHERS OF THE GROOM AND 



'Ho, graceful little peach-tree, 
Thy fruit abundant fall ! 



BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 



93 



The bride goes to her husband; 
Adorns his room, his hall. 
"Ho, graceful little peach-tree, 
With foliage far and wide ! 




BRIDE AT THE MARRIAGE FEAST. 



2332 



The bride goes to her husband; 
His household well to guide." 



94 CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 

Having arrived at their new residence the young couple wor- 
ship heaven and earth. Then the bride is seated on a divan and 
drinks some wine with her husband out of a loving cup consisting 
of two bowls welded into one. 

A few days after the wedding, the fathers of the groom and 
bride meet at the home of the young couple (which commonly is 
the house of the groom's parents) to enjoy a visit before the family 
altar, on which we see the stork and pine-tree, perhaps also the 
tortoise, all emblems of a long and happy life 

We know what an important part in the Chinese world-con- 
ception is played by the idea of the Yang, or the positive principle, 
and Yin, the negative principle. All things have originated by a 
mixture of these two elements, and in married life the Yang repre- 
sents the male and the Yin, the female. Ch*iu Chin (alias Wen 
Chuang) the compiler of a manual of quotations, the Ch'ang Yu 
Kao, 2 expresses the typically Chinese view in these words : 

"The Yin or female element in nature by itself would not be 
productive: the Yang or male element in nature alone would not 
cause growth: therefore through the Yin and Yang. Heaven and 
Earth are mated together. The man by the help of the woman 
makes a household, and the woman by the help of the man makes 
a family: therefore the human race pair off as husband and wife 

"When the Yin and the Yang are in harmony the fertilizing 
rain descends. When the husband and wife are at one, the ideal of 
a family is realized.*' 

From the same source we learn that the husband speaks of his 
own wife as "the stupid thorn" and also as "'the one inside," while 
he refers to the wife of another as your honorable lady." 

1 Ch'iu Chin lived A. D. 1419-1495. His book has been published in an 
English translation together with the original Chinese by J. H. Stewart Lock- 
hart. Hongkong. :So3. 



SOCIAL CUSTOMS AND TRAVELS. 



CHINESE social life greatly resembles our own except that the 
formalities are quite exaggerated and must be punctiliously 
observed. No wonder that Western people, especially Americans 
with their easy-going manners, are regarded as barbarians among 
the polite inhabitants of the Middle Kingdom. Chinese courtesy 
is carried to such extremes that every one, in writing letters and 
in his conversation, speaks with abject humility of himself and the 
members of his family in terms of contempt, while he exaggerates 
the honors and dignity of others, especially of his guests. 

A guest of honor must be received at the gate and shown in 
according to minutely prescribed rules. How punctilious they are 
to be kept according to Confucius, appears from one of his sayings 
(Analects, IX, iii, 2) : "The rules of ceremony prescribe the bowing 
below the hall, but now the practice is to bow only after ascending 
it. That is arrogant. I continue to bow below the hall, though this 
is opposed to the common practice." In one respect Chinese rules 
differ from ours ; a guest of honor does not sit down with his host 
but is conspicuously seated at a table by himself and served with 
special care. 

Undoubtedly the Chinese have given much thought to manners, 
and how much they recognize that all courtesies must be mutual, 
appears from the following sentence quoted by J. H. Stewart 
Lockhart : x "In social intercourse one has to act alternately the 
part of guest and host." Yet in spite of the complicated etiquette 
and the punctilious rules of propriety a natural conduct is praised 
as the best. The scholar Yu is reported to have said (Confucian 
Analects I, 12) : ^» "^~" 

"For the practice of the rules of propriety one excellent way 
is to be natural. This naturalness became a great grace in the 

1 A Manual of Chinese Quotations, p. in. 



96 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



practice of kings of former times ; let every one small or great 
follow their example." 




THE HOST RECEIVES THE GUEST OF HONOR AT THE ENTRANCE GATE. 

2284 



Tt is characteristic of Confucius and perhaps of the educated 
Chinese in general, that they firmly believe in the intrinsic power oi 



SOCIAL CUSTOMS AND TRAVELS. 



97 



goodness and propriety ; a sage by his noble example will change 
barbarians and savages into gentlemen. Gentlemanly behavior is 
almost a religious virtue in the opinion of all the educated Chinese 




THE GUEST OF HONOR AT THE BANQUET. 



2307 



and Confucius himself felt true missionary zeal to spread the ideal 
of the superior man even among savages. The following statement 



98 



CHINESE LIFE AXD CUSTOMS. 



made in the Analects I IX. xiii ) is characteristic of his faith in the 
power of good manners : "The Master was wishing to go and live 
among the nine wild tribes of the East. Some one said. Thev are 




* n * at 

x it ^ 




Jsj 




CARDS AXD OTHER UTENSILS USED AT CONVIVIALS. 



rude. How can you do such a thing? The Master said. Tf a 

superior man dwelt among them, what rudeness would there be?" ' 

The drinking carousels of China remind one strongly of 



SOCIAL CUSTOMS AND TRAVELS. 99 

man habits and the drinking laws of student life. At a Chinese 
drinking bout a toastmaster is appointed ; there are drinking games 
in which the members of a convivial society drink according to 
regulations prescribed by cards that are distributed ; and we meet 
with loving-cups as well as prize cups, usually bearing words of 
good cheer, of friendship, or wishes for long life. 

Our illustration shows two cards of a convivial game. The 
one in the left upper corner is a picture of Li Pei, one of the seven 
famous drunkard poets, of whom tradition says that he could make 
hundreds of stanzas after having drunk a hundred gallons of wine. 
The other card shows Chang Hsu, a famous calligraphist, who 
could write most artistically in the grass style of Chinese writing. 
On the same plate we see a beautiful decanter and also a chop- 
stick holder ornamented with emblems of longevity, so much used 
in Chinese congratulation and on other occasions. Underneath we 
see a cup of honor which is used for special events. 

A drinking song preserved in the Shih King (II, viii, 7) de- 
scribes a host who in spite of the frugality of his kitchen encourages 
his guests to drink freely and will not permit any of the four cere- 
monies to be omitted, viz. : 

( 1 ) For the host to pour the wine and taste it ; 

(2) To fill the cups of the guests and bid them drink; 

(3) For the guests to fill and drink to the host ; 

(4) For host and guests to pledge each other. 

In Mr. Jennings's pretty translation the song reads: 

"Waving gourd-leaves cuts he there. 
Boils them, (will not waste them) ! 
Yet our host has drinks to spare ; 
See him pour and taste them. 

"One poor rabbit all the fare, — 

Roast they it, or bake it ! 
Yet our host has wine to spare; 
Fills and bids us take it. 

"One poor rabbit all the fare, — 
Broil they him or roast him ! 
Yet our host has wine to spare ; 
Fill we up and toast him ! 

"One poor rabbit all the fare, — 
Broil they him, or grill him ! 
Yet our host has wine to spare; 
Each for other fill him!'' 

LOfC. 



lOO CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 

A convivial carousel is vividly portrayed in a poem ascribed to 
the Duke Wu of Wei, one of the most sober and ideal princes of 
China, and father of Wen Wang, the noble founder of the Chou 
dynasty. Tradition has it that there was a period in Duke Wu's 
life when he was given to intemperate habits, but it is not impossible 
(if indeed he was at all the author of this poem) that like so many 
other poets of drinking songs, he was intemperate only in imagi- 
nation and not in practice. 

We quote extracts from Duke Wu's song which in William 
Jennings's splendid translation read as follows: 

"The feast begins, — on either hand 

The guests by rank reclining; 
In close array the dishes stand, 

The meats and fruits aligning. 
The wines are choice, and flavored well, 

The guests all harmonizing ; 
Placed on the stands are drum and bell ; 

All round are pledge-cups rising. 

"The guests when first they sit them down 

Look mild and most respectful. 
And — ere their intellects they drown — 

Sedate, of naught forgetful. 
But when to great excess they go, — 

Proprieties renouncing, — 
Out of their seats they start, and oh, 

The capering and bouncing! 
So is it, — while they drink not deep, 

They bear themselves subduedly, 
But when due bounds they overleap, 

Behave themselves most rudely. 
Ay, when to such excess they go, 
No sense of order do they show." 

The author thus describes a drinking bout with its excesses 
but does not praise them, and one of the stanzas concludes with the 
lines. 

"A wine feast is a rare good thing 
When men good manners to it bring." 

The songs of the Shih King were collected by Confucius in the 
fifth century B. C. In the great sage's day they were the classical 
poetry of China, and it is quite probable that most of them were 
several centuries old and yet how modern are many of the thoughts ! 
The very drinking songs sound like German student songs of the 
present age, and the moral maxims will remain timely forever. 



SOCIAL CUSTOMS AND TRAVELS. 



IOI 



The Chinese are not great travelers, for the inconveniences of 
long journeys are many and great. They never think of traveling 
unless compelled to do so for business reasons. Wherever there are 



f.1 



w J > 




TRAVELING IN CHINA. 



any roads in China they are in very poor condition. They are 
neglected both by the government and by the community, and pri- 
vate citizens naturally do not trouble about keeping them in order. 



102 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



As a result they are almost impassable after bad rains, and traveling 
is thereby made very unpleasant. The carts used for transportation 




AN INN IN CHINA. 



>286 



are of a heavy build so as to stand the irregularities of the road, 
and are by no means convenient for passengers. For other trips 
sedan chairs are used, but the more commodious kind of sedan 



SOCIAL CUSTOMS AND TRAVELS. 



I03 



chairs called kiao is forbidden to the common people, its use being 
reserved for the highest officials and for families of rank. 

Under these conditions travelers prefer the water way, and go 




A MANDARIN S REST HOUSE. 



always by boat unless they are compelled to go by land. Moreover 
the Chinese boats are more convenient and better built than Chinese 
wagons. 



104 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



The inns in China do not compare to advantage with European 
and American hotels : but mandarins, the magistrates of the Chinese 
empire, have resting-places of their own. in which they can stop 
on their official journeys. 

In consideration of the fact that the government does not 
trouble itself to keep roads in order, that bridges, fords, ferries 
and other thoroughfares are both inconvenient and dangerous to 
travelers, we understand that the religious books in China preach 
it as one of the moral duties of the individual to mend roads, to 
keep bridges in repair, maintain ferries and light up dark places 
on the highways. 




SICKNESS AND DEATH. 



WE read in Ch'iu Chin's manual of quotations: "Happiness, 
long life, and health of body and mind, are truly what all 
alike desire." Yet, adds the same compiler, "Death and disease are 
what man can not avoid." 

If this is truly and typically Chinese we must confess that the 
Chinese are veritably human, for the sentiment is common to all 
the races on earth. But the Chinese recognize more than the other 
nations of the world what they owe to their ancestors, and this 
sentiment led them to an extravagantly punctilious ancestor wor- 
ship. The classical song of the great annual sacrifice in the an- 
cestral temple as recorded in the Shih King begins with a stanza 
which points out the reason why the present generation owes a 
debt of gratitude to its fathers. As translated by Mr. Jennings it 
reads thus: 

"Where once were tangled thickets, 
Now gone is every thorn. 
Thanks to our fathers' labors, 

We grow our rice and corn, — 
Our rice in crops abundant, 
Our corn on every hand. 
Thus filled are all our garners, 

And stacks unnumbered stand. 
For meat and drink they serve us, 

For sacrificial food, 
For comfort, for refreshment, 
For pledge of higher good." 

The spirits of the dead are commonly represented at the festival 
by proxies specially appointed, who in another song of the Shih 
King, (III, ii, 4) are addressed as follows: 

"Like the waterfowl within the cleft, 
To their rest, to happy freedom left, 
Come the proxies of your ancestors. 
Choice the drinks for gladdening the heart ! 



io6 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



And the roasts what fragrance they impart ! 
Eat and drink ye proxies of the dead ! 
Smooth's the pathway hereafter ye shall tread." 




VISITING THE SICK. 



When a man in China falls sick, he is visited and comforted 
bv his friends, and the Chinese are said to be kind-hearted and 
helpful if their neighbors, friends, or kinsmen suffer from disease. 



SICKNESS AND DEATH. 



I07 



When a man dies the seven spirits that preside over his seven 
senses die with him, but his soul survives and his soul has a three- 




THE TABLE READY FOR THE WAKE. 



2303 



fold abode, a conception which has led to the belief of three souls. 
One soul goes to heaven to enjoy the reward of its good deeds, 
one soul stays in the grave to receive the sacrifices offered in its 



io8 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



honor and the third soul stays with the tablet bearing the name of 
the deceased in the ancestor's sanctuary, where at appointed times 




Incense Shrine. 



FUNERAL I'Un- 



all the members of the family meet to perform the customary rites 
of ancestor-worship. 



SICKNESS AND DEATH. 



109 



In 'some parts of China a coin is placed in the dead man's 
mouth which is a custom that prevailed also in ancient Greece, 







0?>\ 0} 



on 



fti*i 



*l if 

***. ^1 4.. 






2> 













The Band. 



CESSION. PART I. 



where it was intended as a fee for Charon the ferryman for ferry- 
ing the soul over the Styx. 



no 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



Before the funeral takes place an elaborate festival quite anal- 
ogous to an Irish wake is held, at which a goat, pigs and fowls 




Name Flag and Coffin. 



FUNERAL PRO- 



are offered, and wine is served without stint. After this parting 
meal, the body, dressed in the most splendid garments, is buried 
according to the deceased's wealth and station in life. 



SICKNESS AND DEATH. 



Ill 



We see in our picture a funeral party preceded by a band. The 
Chinese words above the musicians in our picture (p. 109) read 




Women Mourners. 



CESSION. PART II. 



;^o.s 



"drums and music," which is the common denotation for "band" 
even if there are no drums, as is here the case. 

The band is followed by a portable shrine for incense burning. 



1 12 



CHINESE LIFE AXD CUSTOMS. 



Xext in order are the women mourners who are carried in sedans. 
The inscription in our picture reads "women mourners." Finally 
comes the coffin., preceded by a banner on which is written the name 
of the deceased. 




MEMORIAL DAY CELEBRATED AT THE GRAVE. 



iv.ns 



After the funeral, candles are lighted and incense is burned 
again. Then an offering is made, consisting of dresses, caps and 



SICKNESS AND DEATH. 1 13 

money which are burned, not in reality but in the shape of paper 
imitations. The gold and silver money is made of gold and silver 
paper and is assumed to do the same service as if the money were 

real. 

The memory of the dead is kept sacred, and the date of their 
death is kept as a memorial day on which offerings are made at the 
grave, while a fire is lighted outside, for to keep sacred the memory 
of ancestors is one of the most essential maxims insisted upon by 
Confucius and all Chinese moralists. 

The classical passage which records the view of Confucius con- 
cerning the spirits of the dead and the nature of death, is strongly 
tino-ed with agnosticism, and is found in the Analects (XI, n) 

where we read: 

"Tsz-lu propounded a question about ministering to the spirits 
(of the departed). The Master replied, 'Where there is scarcely 
any ability to minister to (living) men, how shall there be ability 
to minister to the spirits?'— On his venturing to put a question 
concerning death, he answered, 'Where there is scarcely any knowl- 
edge about life, how shall there be any about death?' 

In spite of his agnosticism, Confucius insists on the punc- 
tilious fulfilment of the mourning rites, which should last three 
years. We read in the same book : - 

"Tsai Wo questioned him respecting the three years' mourn- 
ing, saying that one full twelve-month was a long time, — that, if 
gentlemen were for three years to cease from observing rules of 
propriety, propriety must certainly suffer, and that if for three years 
they neglected music, music must certainly die out. . . . 

' "The Master asked him, 'Would it be a satisfaction to you— 
that returning to better food, that putting on of fine clothes ?' 

" 'It would,' said he. 

" 'Then if you can be satisfied in so doing, do so. But to a 
gentleman who is in mourning for a parent, the choicest food will 
not be palatable, nor will the listening to music be pleasant, nor 
will comforts of home make him happy in mind. Hence he does 
not do (as you suggest). But if you are happy in your mind, then 
do so.' 

"Tsai went out. And the Master went on to say, Tt is want of 
human feeling in this man. After a child has lived three years it 
then breaks away from the tender nursing of its parents. And this 
three years' mourning is the customary mourning prevalent all 
over the empire. Can this man have enjoyed the three years of lov- 
ing care from his parents?' ' 



ii 4 



CHINESE LIFE AND CUSTOMS. 



As to mourning in general, whether for friends or relatives, 
Confucius was less strict; he said (ibid. XIX, 14): "As to the 
duties of mourning, let them cease when the grief is past." 

If the fault of the Chinese is their lack of progressiveness, we 

must grant that at bottom it is merely an exaggerated virtue the 

reverence of their ancestors. 




Plant Breeding 



Comments on the experiments of 
BURBANK & NILSSON. By 

Hugo DeVries, Professor of Botany in the University of Amsterdam. 

Pages, XIII + 351. 114 Illustrations. Printed on fine enamel paper. Cloth, 

gilt top, $1.50 net; $1.70 postpaid. (7s. 6d. net.) 




Under the influence of the work of Nilsson, Burbank, and others, the principle of 
selection has, of late, changed its meaning in practice in the same sense in which it is 
changing its significance in science by the adoption of the theory of an origin of species 
by means of sudden mutations. The method of slow improvement of agricultural varie- 
ties by repeated selection is losing its reliability and is being supplanted by the discovery 
of the high practical value of the elementary species, which may be isolated by a single 
choice. The appreciation of this principle will, no doubt, soon change the whole aspect 
of agricultural plant breeding. 

Hybridization is the scientific and arbitrary combination of definite characters. It 
does not produce new unit-characters; it is only the combination of such that are new. 
From this point of view the results of Burbank and others wholly agree with the theory 
of mutation, which is founded on the principle of the unit-characters. 

This far-reaching agreement between science and practice is to become a basis for 
the further development of practical breeding as well as of the doctrine of evolution. 
To give proof of this assertion is the main aim of these Essays. 

The results of Nilsson have been published only in the Swedish language; those of 
Burbank have not been described by himself. Prof. DeVries's arguments for the theory 
of mutation have been embodied in a German book, "Die Mutationstheorie" (2 vols. 
Leipsic, Vat & Co.), and in lectures given at the University of California in the summer 
of 1904, published under the title of "Species and Varieties; their Origin by Mutation." 
A short review of them will be found in the first chapter of these Essays. 

Some of them have been made use of in the delivering of lectures at the Universities 
of California and of Chicago during the summer of 1906 and of addresses before various 
audiences during my visit to the United States on that occasion. In one of them ( II. D.), 
the main contents have been incorporated of a paper read before the American Philo- 
sophical Society at their meeting in honor of the bicentennary of the birth of their 
founder, Benjamin Franklin, April, 1906. 

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Space and Geometry in 
the Light of Physiolog- 
ical, Psychological and 
Physical Inquiry. By 

Dr. Ernst Mach, Emeritus Pro- 
fessor in the University of Vienna. 
From the German by Thomas J. 
McCormack, Principal of the 
LaSalle-Peru Township High 
School. 1906. Cloth, gilt top. 
Pp. 1-43. §1.00 net. (5s.net.) 

In these essays Professor Mach dis- 
cusses the questions of the nature,origin,and 
development of our concepts of space from 
the three points of view of the physiology 
and psychology of the senses, history, and 
physics, in all which departments his pro- 
found researches have gained for him an 
authoritative and commanding position. 
While in most works on the foundations of 
geometry one point of view only is empha- 
sized — be it that of logic, epistemology, psy- 
chology, history, or the formal technology 
of the science — here light is shed upon the subject from all points of view combined, 
and the different sources from which the many divergent forms that the science of 
space has historically assumed, are thus shown forth with a distinctness and precision 
that in suggestiveness at least leave little to be desired. 

Any reader who possesses a slight knowledge of mathematics may derive from 
these essays a very adequate idea of the abstruse yet important researches of meta- 
geometry. 




The VOCatiOn Ot Man. By Johann Gottlieb Fichte. Translated 
by William Smith, LL. D. Reprint Edition. With biographical intro- 
duction by E. Ritchie, Ph.D. 1906. Pp.185. Cloth, 75c net. Paper, 25c; 
mailed, 31c. (Is. 6d.) 

Everyone familiar with the history of German Philosophy recognizes the im- 
portance of Fichte's position in its development. His idealism was the best exposition 
of the logical outcome of Kant's system in one of its principal aspects, while it was 
also the natural precurs r of Hegel's philosophy. But the intrinsic value of Fichte's 
writings have too often been overlooked. His lofty ethical tone, the keenness of his men- 
tal vision and the purity of his style render his works a stimulus and a source of satisfac- 
tion to every intelligent reader. Of all his many books, that best adapted to excite an 
interest in his philosophic thought is the Vocation of Man, which contains many of his 
most fruitful ideas and is an excellent example of the spirit and method of his teaching. 

The Rise Ol Man. A Sketch of the Origin of the Human Race. 
By Paul Cams. Illustrated. 1906. Pp.100. Boards, cloth back, 75c net. 
(3s. 6d. net.) 

Paul Cams, the author of The Rise of Man, a new book along anthropological 
lines, upholds the divinity of man from the standpoint of evolution. He discusses the 
anthropoid apes, the relics of primitive man, especially the Neanderthal man and the 
ape-man of DuBois, and concludes with a protest against Huxley, claiming that man has 
risen to a higher level not by cunning and ferocity, but on the contrary by virtue of his 
nobler qualities. 



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The Sermons of a Buddhist Abbot, some Addresses on 

Religious Subjects by the Rt. Rev. Soyen Shaku, Abbot of Engakuji and 
Kenchoji, Kamakura, Japan. Translated by Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki. 
Pp.218. Cloth. $1.00 net. (4s.6d.net.) 

The Sermons of a Buddhist Abbot, which were delivered by the Rt. Rev. Soyen 
Shaku, during the author's visit to this country in 1905-1906, and have been collected 
and translated and edited by his interpreter and friend, Mr. Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, 




will prove fascinating to those who are interested in the comparative study of religion 
as well as in the development of Eastern Asia. Here we have a Buddhist Abbot holding 
a high position in one of the most orthodox sects of Japan, discoursing on problems of 
ethics and philosophy with an intelligence and grasp of the subject which would be 
rare even in a Christian prelate. 



The PPaiSe Of HypOCriSy. An Essay in Casuistry. By G. T. 
Knight, D. D., Professor of Christian Theology in Tufts College Divinity 
School. 1906. Pp. 86. 50c net. 

"The Praise of Hypocrisy" is an essay based on the public confessions of hypocrisy 
that man}' champions of religion have made in these days, and on the defenses they have 
put forth in support of the practice of deceit. Not that the sects now accuse each other 
of insincerity, nor that the scoffer vents his disgust for all religion, but that good men 
(as all must regard them.) in high standing as church members have accused them- 
selves. 

By exhibiting the implications and tendencies of the ethics thus professed and 
defended, and by sharp comment on the same, the author of this essay designs to 
arouse the conscience of the church, to sting it into activity in a region of life where its 
proper functions have ceased. 

This is not an attack on the church, nor even a mere criticism ; it is the language 
of righteous indignation hopefully summoning the church to be honest with itself, to be 
loyal and faithful to its master. 

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Essay on the Creative 
Imagination. By Prof. Th. 

Ribot. Translated from the 
French by A. H. N. Baron, Fel- 
low in Clark University. 1906. 
Cloth, gilt top. Pp. 357. $1.75 
net. (7s. 6d. net.) 



Imagination is not the possession 
only of the inspired few, but is a func- 
tion of the mind common to all men in 
some degree ; and mankind has displayed 
as much imagination in practical life as 
in its more emotional phases — in mech- 
anical, military, industrial, and commer- 
cial inventions, in religious, and political 
institutions as well as in the sculpture, 
painting, poetry and song. This is 
the central thought in the new book of 
Th. Ribot, the well-known psychologist, 
modestly entitled An Essay on the 
Creative Imagination. 

It is a classical exposition of a branch 
of psychology which has often been dis- 
cussed, but perhaps never before in a 
thoroughly scientific manner. Although 

the purely reproductive imagination has been studied with considerable enthusiasm from 
time to time, the creative or constructive variety has been generally neglected and is 
popularly supposed to be confined within the limits of esthetic creation. 



m 




"UI* UUlOren* Hints from Practical Experience for Parents and 
Teachers. By Paul Carus. Pp.207. $1.00 net. (4s.6d.net.) 

In the little book Our Children, Paul Carus offers a unique contribution to peda- 
gogical literature. Without any theoretical pretensions it is a strong defense for the 
rights of the child, dealing with the responsibilities of parenthood, and with the first 
inculcation of fundamental ethics in the child mind and the true principles of correc- 
tion and guidance. Each detail is forcefully illustrated by informal incidents from the 
author's experience with his own children, and his suggestions will prove of the greatest 
possible value to young mothers and kindergartners. Hints as to the first acquaintance 
with all branches of knowledge are touched upon — mathematics, natural sciences, for- 
eign languages, etc. — and practical wisdom in regard to the treatment of money, 
hygiene, and similar problems. 

Yin Chill Wen, The Tract of the Quiet Way. With Extracts from 
the Chinese commentary. Translated by Teitaro Suzuki and Dr. Paul 
Carus. 1906. Pp. 48. 25c net. 

This is a collection of moral injunctions which, among the Chinese is second 
perhaps only to the Kan-Ying P'ien in popularity, and yet so far as is known to the 
publishers this is the first translation that has been made into any Occidental language. 
It is now issued as a companion to the T'ai-Shang Kan-Ying P'ien, although it does 
not contain either a facsimile of the text or its verbatim translation. The original 
consists of the short tract itself which is here presented, of glosses added by commen- 
tators, which form a larger part of the book, and finally a number of stories similar 
to those appended to the Kan-Ying P'ien, which last, however, it has not seemed worth 
while to include in this version. The translator's notes are of value in justifying cer- 
tain readings and explaining allusions, and the book is provided with an index. The 
frontispiece, an artistic outline drawing by Shen Chin-Ching, represents Wen Ch'ang, 
one of the highest divinities of China, revealing himself to the author of the tract. 

The motive of the tract is that of practical morality. The maxims give definite 
instructions in regard to details of man's relation to society, besides more general com- 
mands of universal ethical significance, such as "Live in concord," "Forgive malice," and 
"Do not assert with your mouth what your heart denies." 



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Tai-Shang Kan- YIng PlCIl, Treatise of the Exalted One on Re- 
sponse and Retribution. Translated from the Chinese by Teitaro Suzuki 
and Dr. Paul Carus. Containing Chinese Text, Verbatim Translation, 
Explanatory Notes and Moral Tales. Edited by Dr. Paul Carus. 16 
plates. Pp. 135. 1906. Boards, 75c net. 

The book contains a critical and descriptive introduction, and the entire Chinese 
text in large and distinct characters with the verbatim translation of each page ar- 
ranged on the opposite page in corresponding vertical columns. This feature makes the 
book a valuable addition to the number of Chinese-English text-books already avail- 
able. The text is a facsimile reproduction from a collection of Chinese texts made in 
Japan by Chinese scribes. 

After the Chinese text follows the English translation giving references to the 
corresponding characters in the Chinese original, as well as to the explanatory notes 
immediately following the English version. These are very full and explain the sig- 
nificance' of allusions in the Treatise and compare different translations of disputed 
passages. This is the first translation into English directly from the Chinese original, 
though it was rendered into French by Stanislas Julien, and from his French edition 
into English by Douglas. 

A number of illustrative stories are appended in all the editions of the original, 
but the selection of these stories seems to vary in the different editions. They are very 
inferior in intrinsic value to the Treatise itself, and so are represented here only by 
extracts translated in part directly from the Chinese edition and in part through the 
French of Julien, but many are illustrated by reproductions of the Chinese pictures 
from the original edition. The frontispiece is a modern interpretation by Keichyu 
Yamada of Lao Tze, the great Oriental philosopher, "The Exalted One" to whom the 
authorship of this Treatise is ascribed. 



SpinOZa and Religion. A Study of Spinoza's Metaphysics and of 

his particular utterances in regard to religion, with a view to determining 

the significance of his thought for religion and incidentally his personal 

attitude toward it. By Elmer Ellsworth 
Powell, A. M., Ph. D., Professor of 
Philosophy in Miami University. 1906. 
Pp. xi, 344. $1.50 net. (7s. 6d.) 

Spinoza has been regarded for centuries 
as the most radical philosopher, yet he had a 
reverential attitude toward religion and prom- 
inent thinkers such as Goethe looked up to him 
as their teacher in both metaphysics and religion. 
Professor E. E. Powell, of Miami University, 
feels that there has been great need to have 
Spinoza's philosophy and attitude toward re- 
ligion set forth by a competent hand, and, ac- 
cordingly, he has undertaken the task with a 
real love of his subject, and has indeed ac- 
complished it with success. 




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Aristotle on His Prede- 
cessors. Being the first book 
of his metaphysics. Translated 
from the text of Christ, with intro- 
duction and notes. By A. E. 
Taylor, M. A., Fellow of Merton 
College, Oxford; Frothingham 
I^IPP^ 1 ^ ^Blli Professor of Philosophy in Mc- 

Gill University, Montreal. Pp. 
160. Cloth, 75c net. Paper, 35c 
postpaid. 

This book will be welcome to all 
teachers of philosophy, for it is a transla- 
tion made by a competent hand of the 
most important essay on the history of 
Greek thought down to Aristotle, written 
by Aristotle himself. The original served 
this great master with his unprecedented 
encyclopedic knowledge as an introduc- 
tion to his Metaphysics; but it is quite 
apart from the rest of that work, forming 
an independent essay in itself, and will re- 
main forever the main source of ourinfor- 

« : A . .. . . , . _ mation on the predecessors of Aristotle. 

Considering the importance of the book, it is strange that no translation of it appears 
to have been made since the publication of that bv Bekker in 1831 

The present translation has been made from the latest and most critical Greek text 
available, the second edition of W. Christ, and pains have been taken not onlv to repro- 
duce it in readable English, but also to indicate the exact way in which the translator 
understands every word and clause of the Greek. He has further noted all the im- 
portant divergencies between the readings of Christ's text and the editions of Zellar 
and Bomtz, the two chief modern German exponents of Aristotelianism. 

Not the least advantage of the present translation is the incorporation of the trans- 
lator s own work and thought. He has done his best, within the limited space he has 
allowed himself for explanations, to provide the student with ample means of j udging 
for himself in the light of the most recent researches in Greek philosophical literature, 
the value of Aristotle's account of previo us thought as a piece of historical criticism. 

Zarathushtra, Philo, the Achaemenids and Israel. 

A Treatise Upon the Antiquity and Influence of the Avesta. By Dr. 
Lawrence H. Mills, Professor of Zend Philology in the University of 
Oxford. 1906. Pp.460. Cloth, gilt top. $4.00 net. 

Professor Lawrence H. Mills, the great Zendavesta scholar of Oxford, England, has 
devoted his special attention to an investigation and comparison of the relations that 
obtain between our own religion, Christianity— including its sources in the Old Testa- 
ment scriptures— and the Zendavesta, offering the results of his labors in a new book 
that is now being published by The Open Court Publishing Companv, under the title, 
"Zarathushtra, Philo, the Achaemenids and Israel, a Treatise upon the Antiquity and 
Influence of the Avesta." We need scarcely add that this subject is of vital importance 
in theology, for the influence of Persia on Israel and also on the foundation of the 
Christian faith has been paramount, and a proper knowledge of its significance is in- 
dispensable for a comprehension of the origin of our faith. 

Babel and BlDle* Three Lectures on the Significance of Assyrio- 
logical Research for Religion, Embodying the most important Criticisms 
and the Author's Replies. By Dr. Friedrich Delitzsch, Professor of Assyr- 
iology in the University of Berlin. Translated from the German. Pro- 
fusely illustrated. 1906. Pp. xv, 240. $1.00 net. 
A new edition of "Babel and Bible," comprising the first, second and third lectures 

by Dr. Friedrich Delitzsch, complete with discussions and the author's replies, has been 

published by The Open Court Publishing Company, making a stately volume of 255 

pages. 



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The Story of Samson And * ts ^ lace in j^ * eli f- 

" ious Development ot Mankind. 

By Paul Cams. 80 illustrations. Pp. 183. Comprehensive index. 

Boards, $1.00 net. (4s. 6d. net.) 

Dr. Cams contends that Samson's prototype is to be found in those traditions of all prim- 
itive historical peoples which relate to a solar deity. He believes that genuine tradition, no 
matter how mythological, is more conservative than is at first apparent. Though the bibli- 
cal account of Samson's deeds, like the twelve labors of Heracles, is the echo of an ancient 
solar epic which glorifies the deeds of Shamash in his migration through the twelve signs of 
the zodiac, there may have been a Hebrew hero whose deeds reminded the Israelites of Sha- 
mash, and so his adventures were told with modifications which naturally made the solar 
legends cluster about his personality. 

References are fully given, authorities quoted and comparisons are carefully drawn be- 
tween Samson on the one hand, and Heracles, Shamash, Melkarth and Siegfried on the 
other. The appendix contains a controversy between Mr. Geo. W. Shaw and the author in 
which is discussed at some length the relation between myth and history. 

rf^h5ri£>C{> Til Oil IT tit ^ n Exposition of the Main Character- 

** ' istic Features of the Chinese World- 
Conception. By Paul Carus. Being a continuation of the author's essay, 
Chinese Philosophy. Illustrated. Index. Pp.195. $1.00 net. (4s. 6d.) 

This book contains much that is of very great interest in the development of Chinese 
culture, Beginning in the first chapter with a study of the earliest modes of thought-com- 
munication among primitive people of different parts of the world, and tracing the growth of 
the present system of Chinese caligraphy. In "Chinese Occultism" some interesting Oriental 
mystical ideas are explained as well as the popular methods of divination by means of tri- 
grams and the geomancer's compass. In a special chapter the zodiacs of different nations 
are compared with reference to the Chinese zodiac and also to a possible common Babylon- 
ian origin. This chapter contains many rare and valuable illustrations representing almost 
all known zodiacs from those of Egypt to the natives of the Western hemisphere . The in- 
fluence of Confucius is discussed, and a hurried recapitulation of the most important points 
in Chinese history is given together with a review of the long novel which stands in the place 
of a national epic. Chinese characteristics and social conditions have their place in this 
volume as well as the part played in China by Christian missions, and the introduction of 
Western commercialism. The author's object is to furnish the necessary material for a psy- 
chological appreciation of the Chinese by sketching the main characteristic features of the 
ideas which dominate Chinese thought and inspire Chinese morality, hoping thereby to con- 
tribute a little toward the realization of peace and good will upon earth. 

Chinese Life and Customs ^miSE 

by Chinese artists. Pp. 114. 75c. net. (3s. 6d. net.) 

This book is little more than a compilation of Chinese illustrations accompanied with only 
as much text as will suffice to explain them, and what further material has been added is 
merely in the way of quotations from Chinese literature. The intention is to make the 
Chinese people characterize themselves by word and "picture. Child rhymes, love lyrics and 
songs of revelry are introduced in translation from Chinese poetry which is recognized as 
classical. The illustrations which form the great body of the book are from the most authen- 
tic Chinese source of information concerning modern life in China unaffected by the aggres- 
sive Occidental foreigners. The book is divided into chapters on "Annual Festivals," 
"Industries and Foreign Relations, " "Confucianism and Ancestor Worship," "Taoism and 
Buddhism," "Childhood and Education," "Betrothal and Marriage," "Social Customs and 
Travels," "Sickness and Death." 



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Our Children 

Hints from Practical Experience for 
Parents and Teachers. By Paul Carus 
Pp. 207. $1.00 net. (4s. 6d. net) 

In the little book Our Children, Paul Carus offers a unique contribution to peda- 
gogical literature. Without any theoretical pretensions it is a strong defense for 
the rights of the child, dealing with the responsibilities of parenthood, and with 
the first inculcation of fundamental ethics in the child mind and the true principles 
of correction and guidance. Each detail is forcefully illustrated by informal 
incidents irom the author's experience with his own children, and his suggestions 
will prove of the greatest possible value to young mothers and kindergartners. 
Hints as to the first acquaintance with all branches of knowledge are touched 
upon — mathematics, natural sciences, foreign languages, etc. — and practical 
wisdom in regard to the treatment of money, hygiene and similar problems. 



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"Mr. Carus writes in a most practical manner upon his subject, setting before the reader the 
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